1.  The European System of States Created by the Peace of Westphalia

3  In the Thirty Years’ War—1618 to 1648—the bloody wars of religion which had racked Europe for a century reached their climax (see also Religion or Belief, Freedom of, International Protection). The so-called Holy Roman Empire, whose princes had since 1452 consistently elected a Habsburg as German King and Roman Emperor, was after the reformation in reality only a confederation of States with certain federal features (Confederations of States). The Protestant members waged war against the emperor and formed alliances with foreign States. Other States, notably Sweden and France, intervened massively with both diplomatic and military means in the Thirty Years’ War; the lengthy peace negotiations from 1644 to 1648 eventually led to the convening of a conference of States. Peace was formally concluded in two treaties signed on 24 October 1648 by the emperor, the electors, princes and estates of the empire on the one hand and by France—in Münster—and by Sweden—in Osnabrück—on the other hand. However, the Treaty of Osnabrück, according to Art. XVII, applied also to France, Spain, Great Britain, Denmark with Norway and adjoining territories including Schleswig, Poland, Portugal, the Duchy of Lorraine, the Republic of Venice, Russia, the United Provinces of the Netherlands—whose independence from Spain was now also recognized—Switzerland, the Grison Union, and the princedom of Transylvania. The peace treaties of Münster and Osnabrück may thus be described as a European collective agreement such as later became customary for resolving political and international law differences after times of war and disturbance (Berlin Congress [1878]; Paris Peace Treaty [1856]; Peace Treaties after World War I ; Vienna Congress [1815]).

4  Through the Peace of Westphalia the members of the Holy Roman Empire—numbering around 300-achieved a status approaching sovereignty; they were granted the right to enter into alliances with foreign powers as long as these were not directed against the empire and the emperor. On the other hand, any foreign policy initiatives by the emperor on behalf of the empire required the consent of the Member States and the political power of the empire was drastically reduced. The 13 Swiss cantons, who had not participated in the imperial diets since 1500, were recognized in the Peace of Westphalia as a confederation and were determined to remain aloof from all the conflicts of the European Great Powers. After the Peace of Westphalia and the Treaty of the Pyrenees between France and Spain (Treaty between France and Spain [signed 7 November 1659] [1659] 5 CTS 325), France became the major power on the European continent, partly also because of its intellectual and cultural achievements. In international relations French displaced Latin as the language of diplomacy. In the confessional field recognition was again accorded to the Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555) (E Reich [ed] Select Documents [P S King & Co London 1905] 230–32] for the whole empire and extended to the Calvinists. As regards free religious observance the status as of 1 January 1624 was decisive. The princes retained the power, bestowed on them in 1555, to decide on the confession of their subjects but dissenters were granted freedom of conscience and the protection of their civil rights, ie human rights. The expropriation without compensation of the monasteries and other church property to the benefit of Protestant princes was confirmed as long as it had taken place before 1 January 1624. The Holy See condemned these provisions. The Peace of Westphalia marked the end of the wars of religion, but confessional antagonisms affected domestic and foreign policies for many years to come. After the Puritan Revolution in England, dissenters were persecuted, most savagely in Catholic Ireland—massacres of Drogheda and Wexford—and Cromwell insisted on the conviction and execution of the Stuart King Charles I (1649) irrespective of the fact that he was head of the Anglican Church. The Peace of Westphalia also provided for pardon and amnesty for all hostile activities since the beginning of the war (Art. II Peace Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück; Amnesties).

5  All participants in the Peace of Westphalia were placed under the obligation to protect and defend its provisions against all others. It was incumbent on a wronged party to warn a transgressor first, but the matter itself was to be referred to peaceful settlement or to a legal adjudication (Art. CXXIII Treaty of Münster, identical wording in Art. XVII Treaty of Osnabrück; Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes). If the conflict had not been settled by either of these methods within three years, all the parties to the treaties were to assist the injured party ‘in counsel and force to repel the injury’ (Art. CXXIV, Art. XVII). The following rules which were to remain valid throughout the period 1648 to 1815 were contained in the terms of the Peace of Westphalia to govern the cardinal problems of international relations and international law (International Relations, Principal Theories): treaties were to be observed (Pacta sunt servanda); a conflict concerning the new peace order was to be settled by peaceful means, ie negotiation, conciliation, and mediation or arbitration; the injured State could take up arms against the transgressor in order to restore its rights and was to be accorded the military support of the other treaty partners in such a justified war to obtain redress; a war initiated without just cause was illegal and the Contracting States were to confront the disturber of the peace jointly. These principles conformed with the then prevailing doctrine of the bellum iustum, whereby iustum does not mean just in the moral sense but legal according to the law of nations and treaties in force. The policy of even absolute and self-confident monarchs always included alleged legal claims to certain areas which they wished to acquire, but in the European system of States sovereigns had no automatic right to wage war. If the legal claim was seen as a mere pretext, interested States intervened as mediators, often quite forcefully. Since a collective intervention of all the Contracting States, envisaged in the Peace of Westphalia as a guarantee of the status quo, never proved possible in practice, a tendency towards ever-changing alliances and wars between the absolute monarchs developed. Nevertheless, as far as Europe was concerned, the period between 1648 and 1815 was uniform both politically and in its international law aspects. The Peace Treaty of Paris of 10 February 1763 between France, Great Britain and Spain (‘Definitive Treaty of Peace between France, Great Britain and Spain’ [signed 10 February 1763] [1763] 42 CTS 279) still referred specifically to the 1648 treaties, and to 16 subsequent treaties, which it reconfirmed and took as its basis.

2.  Politics and International Law

6  The system established by the Peace of Westphalia remained substantially unchanged until the wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. In the following account only those events are featured which affected European subjects of international law as such in relation to their national territory, or which had a direct influence on the development of international law. At the same time, certain domestic political developments cannot be ignored.

7  The predominant foreign policy maxim in Europe was the political balance of power, since the politics of foreign policy are also always power politics. The term was used for the first time in the 16^th century by Francesco Guicciardini and referred to the regional balance of power between the States of the Italian peninsula. According to the Peace Treaty of Utrecht (Treaty of Peace and Amity between France and the Netherlands [signed 13 July 1713] [1713] 28 CTS 37) the peace and repose of Christianity should be achieved by iustum potentiae aequilibrium (just balance of power), which would provide the best and soundest basis for mutual friendship and lasting understanding. In 1806 Friedrich Gentz defined the European balance of power as ‘an organisation of separately existing States of which no single one has the ability to impair the independence or the basic rights of the others without meeting with effective resistance and thus having to risk danger for itself’ (F Gentz Gesammelte Schriften vol IV [Olms-Weidmann 1997] 1). The political balance of power of a particular region is not a rule of international law, but it is one of the political and sociological bases of international law in the State system of a given region and at the same time a maxim of foreign policy (Sociological Theories of International Law).

8  A shift in the power relationships affecting an established balance of power does not, however, provide the legal justification for a preventative war. Here, Grotius wrote that, according to international law, it was not ‘right to take up arms in order to weaken a power which, if it becomes too great, may be a source of danger’ (H Grotius De iure belli ac pacis, vol II, ch l, sec XVII). As there is no such thing as perfect security in the human sphere, the art of foreign policy consists, inter alia, in an early recognition of a shift in the balance which could endanger the security of other States and countering it with appropriate means, such as alliances, fortifications, etc. A war justifiable according to the prevailing rules of international law could only be waged after specifying the legal ground.

9  Between 1667 and 1697 Louis XIV of France based the occupation of Flemish towns and the Franche Comté of Burgundy on hereditary rights and of towns in Alsace and Breisgau on decisions of the Chambers of Reunion (Occupation, Belligerent). These legal titles were disputed by Britain and Holland and the alliance of the two countries caused France to suffer decisive defeat in the naval battle of 1692. Nevertheless, in the treaties of Nimeguen (Peace between the Empire, Austria and France [signed 26 January (5 February) 1697] [1697] 15 CTS 1) and Ryswick (Treaty of Peace between France and The Netherlands [signed 20 September 1697] [1697] 21 CTS 347) some of the French territorial claims were acknowledged. On the basis of the so-called Barrier Treaties of 29 October 1709 (Treaty between Great Britain and the Netherlands for Settling a Barrier against France [signed 29 October 1709] [1709] 26 CTS 425), 29 January 1712 (Treaty of Guarantee of the Barrier between Great Britain and the Netherlands [signed 29, 30 January 1712] [1712] 27 CTS 373) and 15 November 1715 (Treaty between the Emperor and Spain and Great Britain and the Netherlands for a Barrier for the Netherlands [signed 15 November 1715] [1715] 29 CTS 333), Holland was, however, entrusted with securing the southern Netherlands (Belgium) against further incursions by France; under these treaties Holland had to keep garrisons in certain fortresses in Belgium, which was ruled until 1714 by Spain, and from then until 1791 by Austria.

10  In accordance with the principle of the political balance of power, the European States prevented the union of France and Spain under the Bourbon dynasty at the end of the Spanish war of succession (Peace of Utrecht [1713]); in the subsequent Peace of Rastatt (Treaty of Peace between the Emperor and Spain, and France [signed 7 March 1714] [1714] 29 CTS 1) Austria was given possession of former Spanish territory in the southern Netherlands (Belgium), Milan, Naples, and Sardinia. In 1720, Austria ceded Sardinia, in exchange for Sicily, to the Duke of Piedmont, who then adopted the title of King of Sardinia. In the Peace of Vienna (Preliminaries of Peace between the Emperor and France [signed 3 October 1735] [1735] 34 CTS 283) a lateral branch of the Bourbon family assumed sovereignty over Naples and Sicily—the so-called Kingdom of the two Sicilies; Britain acquired Gibraltar.

11  Attempts by Sweden in the Great Northern War to extend its power in northern and eastern Europe ended, after several major victories, in the defeat of its King, Charles XII. In the Peace of Nystad (Treaty of Peace between Russia and Sweden [signed 30 August 1721] [1721] 31 CTS 339) the Baltic countries were assigned to Russia. Tsar Peter I, who carried out many significant internal reforms and founded Petersburg in 1703, raised Russia to the status of a major power.

12  In the Austrian war of succession, Friedrich II of Prussia conquered Silesia in 1741, which had previously belonged to Austria (Conquest); the claim to legal title was seen throughout Europe to be a mere pretext for a Prussian war of aggression. It was a clear infringement of the rules of international law and the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia. Nevertheless, after two further wars, Prussia was successful in gaining recognition of its territorial expansion in 1763. The Seven Years’ War between France and England, in which several other European States participated, involved the colonies of the two powers in America and their settlements in India (Decolonization, British Territories; Decolonization, French Territories). In the Peace of Paris France lost almost all its American colonies to England and Spain and was driven almost completely from the Indian subcontinent.

13  In the still-feudal oligarchy of Poland, the free election of its kings by the nobility had led to constant interventions on the part of its neighbours and France. King Stanislav August Poniatovski, who was supported by Russia, was only able to overcome the resistance of his rivals with the aid of Russian troops. Subsequently, Poland was forced to cede large tracts of territory to Russia, Prussia and Austria—the so-called first partition of Poland 1772 (Cession). This constituted an infringement of the rules of international law by the three conservative monarchies. In the course of the Wars of the French Revolution, Russia and Prussia agreed in 1793 on further territorial acquisitions in Poland—the so-called second partition—and, after heroic resistance by Poles who sympathized with the French Revolution, the remainder of Poland was divided among the three neighbouring powers. The three conservative monarchs now numbered millions of Poles among their subjects and had become direct neighbours.

14  After the collapse of Cromwell’s dictatorship in 1660, Charles II approved the English Parliament’s Habeas Corpus Act which secured the personal freedom of every British subject. After the Glorious Revolution, William III approved the Bill of Rights which confirmed all the rights which Parliament had previously struggled to achieve. The parliamentary monarchy in Great Britain with its division of powers became a model for the rest of the civilized world. These principles were elaborated by John Locke (1632–1704) in his writings on political philosophy, which exerted a strong influence on the developing Enlightenment movement in Europe, especially in France.

15  Economic commerce with the territories and States of Africa and India was promoted in England, the Netherlands and France by privileged trading companies which, on the basis of their concessions, also performed functions of State in the overseas territories (Overseas Territories, Australia, France, Netherlands, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States of America). As private companies in the age of mercantilism and growing capitalism, they aimed at the rapid acquisition of profits. This encouraged their agents to adopt ruthless measures towards their European competitors and later also within the colonies themselves, thereby also enabling them to amass great personal wealth. The activities of the East India Company were debated in the British Parliament, the government had to tighten its control over the Company, and two high officials, with powers similar to those of Roman proconsuls, Robert Clive and later Warren Hastings who had made considerable contributions to the growth of British dominion in India, were accused of corruption and, in the latter’s case, impeached. The American colonies were also developed by such companies until the Crown took over their administration. At sea, by resorting to harsh means, Britain remained victorious in hard-fought battles against both the Netherlands and France (Naval Warfare). With the aid of bases gradually established in many parts of the world, Britain, from 1763 onwards, ruled the seas with its navy.

16  Then, however, a group of British colonies in North America, calling themselves the Thirteen United States of America, freed themselves from the injuries and usurpations of the British monarchy in the Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776. Relying on the principle of self-determination, they founded a Roman republic, with Senate and House of Representatives on Capitol Hill, taking as their emblem the eagle, holding in its beak a scroll with the Latin inscription E Pluribus Unum, and the five-pointed star of the Enlightenment. Supported by France and by many other Europeans, the new American federal State created by the American Revolution was able to assert its independence in a seven-year war and in the Peace of Paris (Definitive Treaty of Peace between Great Britain and the United States [signed 3 September 1783] [1783] 48 CTS 487) was recognized as a new subject of international law even by its mother country (Federal States). This was a landmark in the history of the world.

17  The 1787 Constitution of the United States empowered Congress ‘to define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the High Seas and Offences against the Law of Nations’ (Art. I, sec. VIII, clause 10 1787 Constitution of the United States; Piracy). Congress and only Congress was entitled to declare war (Art. 1, sec. VIII, clause 11 1787 Constitution of the United States), whereas in the monarchies of Europe the declaration of war was a prerogative of the absolute rulers. Of great significance is the following: ‘all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the Supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding’ (Art. VI, clause 2 1787 Constitution of the United States). This provision reflects decisions of English courts going back to the first half of the 18^th century and may be seen as Anglo-Saxon doctrine concerning the relationship of international law to domestic law (International Law and Domestic [Municipal] Law); after World Wars I and II it was incorporated in a number of new constitutions.

19  This doctrine was embodied in an Act of 7 August 1789. The Indian tribes were thus protected from every attack, except when Congress authorized a just and lawful war against them—for example, if the Indians launched an unjustified attack. The sovereign tribes were therefore not only treated according to universal international law; they were also made subject to the prevailing European rule that a war could only be waged lawfully if a sufficient legal ground existed. Chief Justice John Marshall elaborated the international rights of the Indians in a number of court decisions; at the same time, however, he indicated that a weaker community could seek the protection of a stronger one without sacrificing the character of a State with home rule.

20  The settlers of European origin in the US accepted the validity of European international law; even when their self-confidence grew and they increasingly dissociated themselves from Europe, they never claimed the right to develop a North American international law. The US even contributed considerably to the further development of European international law.

21  The success of the American Revolution, supported by France against Britain, forced the French government to make internal reforms. The Estates-General convoked by the king, in which the citizens of the third estate were allotted seats according to their number, guaranteed the legal status of all citizens in the Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen of 1789. The catalogue of these rights was incorporated in the French Constitution of 1791 and subsequently included in a number of other European and non-European constitutions. According to the French Constitution of 1791 the right to declare war, to make peace, and to ratify treaties—of peace, alliance, and commerce—was vested in the legislative body. If the executive power commenced hostilities and the corps législatif (legislative body) judged this action to be a culpable aggression on the part of the minister or other executive organ, the author of the aggression was liable to prosecution. According to Title VI, France renounced all wars of conquest; its armies would never be employed against the freedom of other nations. Thus, the National Assembly did not approve the incorporation of the enclave of Avignon, a Papal State (Enclaves), until after a plebiscite had been held, although papal control had been destroyed de facto by revolution.

22  In the French Constitution of 24 June 1793, the principle of non-intervention in the government (ie the internal affairs) of other States was embodied in Art. 119 (Intervention, Prohibition of). Art. 118, however, declared France to be the friend and natural ally of all free peoples. The principles of the Revolution were to be considered valid for humanity as a whole. The legal position of aliens was also regulated very generously. On the other band, the National Convention in 1795 declined to adopt a Déclaration du droit des gens presented by representative Abbé Grégoire which, following the lines of the rights of man declaration, formulated the rights and duties of States according to international law (States, Fundamental Rights and Duties); many of the points have in the course of time become rules of international law.

23  In February 1794 the National Convention granted the black slaves in Haiti freedom and equality with the white population; in 1797, the Directorate appointed the negro Tousaint l’Ouverture as supreme commander in Haiti. He declared the independence of Haiti and as president gave the island a constitution (see also Haiti, Conflict). In 1801 Napoleon attempted in vain to regain the rich colony, and in 1803 France had to withdraw completely. With the creation and recognition of the new States Haiti and Dominica the process of decolonization was given a new impetus. The independence movements in Latin America gained momentum, leading to the formation of new States independent of Spain and Portugal after the Vienna Congress (Decolonization, Portuguese Territories; Decolonization, Spanish Territories).

24  The war of the changing coalitions of European States against France brought General Napoleon to power. This is not the place to describe in detail the many territorial changes and the formation of new States. Numerous States of the Holy Roman Empire subordinated themselves to the victorious might of France in the Rhenish Confederation, causing Emperor Franz II to abdicate in 1806. The system of the Peace of Westphalia finally lay in ruins. Under the patronage of France the mediatization and secularization of many of the members of this Confederation had taken place; its successor, the German Confederation founded in 1815, numbered only 39 Member States. In 1797 the territory of the Republic of Venice, together with Dalmatia, passed to Austria, and in 1815 that of the Republic of Genoa to Sardinia-Piedmont. France’s struggle for hegemony, which under Napoleon knew no bounds, finally met defeat at the hands of the coalition of European States. In 1815 the Congress of Vienna founded a new peace order in Europe and restored the balance of power. But certain programmes and institutions of the American and French Revolutions were adopted in the constitutions of most European States and gradually also became part of European international law.

3.  European International Law

25  In the development of European international law the period 1648 to 1815 is characterized by a lively interplay of relations among numerous European States, which consisted in ever-changing alliances, political treaties and diplomatic correspondence. With the appearance of manufactured goods and industries in the age of mercantilism and capitalism, trade and shipping intensified, not only between European States, but also between these and their overseas colonies and other countries outside Europe.

26  The exchange of permanent diplomatic agents and missions between European States, including Russia, became common practice. The absolute monarchs and their representatives insisted on special treatment and privileges; there was therefore constant strife within the diplomatic corps. As early as 1700 there were already three classes of diplomatic representatives in Europe: ambassadors, envoys, and chargés d’affaires. The Vienna Rules of 1815 confirmed these three classes and established the principle of local seniority within each class. Consuls continued their previous activities, which in the Near East, on the basis of capitulations, included jurisdiction over their own nationals (Consular Jurisdiction). In view of the large number of European subjects of international law, the number of intra-European treaties increased. In addition, treaties were also concluded with South and South-East Asian States and with American and African native tribes. In the preamble to the treaties it remained customary to invoke God or the Holy Trinity. On the other hand, the confirmation of the treaty by oath—corroboration—became obsolete. In multilateral treaties and protocols, difficulties constantly arose concerning the arrangement and order of the signature.

27  Acquisition of territory required the approval of the former sovereign (Territory, Acquisition). Conquest as such conferred no legal title. Cession only became legally valid after the conclusion of a treaty, usually a peace treaty. In view of the balance of power principle, a transfer of territory in Europe affected all European States. Even during the period of absolutism, the new ruler recognized the rights and privileges of the various estates. In special provisions in the treaties he committed himself to the protection of religious minorities (Minorities, European Protection; Minorities, International Protection). As bondage and serfdom was still widespread during this period, option of nationality or plebiscites for the population as a whole were not even considered.

28  The increase in trade created the need for special commercial treaties. Customs were collected according to fixed schedules at the national frontiers; internal duties gradually disappeared (Customs Law, International). The French customs tariff was introduced in 1664 by the mercantilist Minister Colbert. In the Methuen Treaty of 27 December 1703 (Treaty of Commerce between Great Britain and Portugal [signed 27 December 1703] [1703] 25 CTS 37) Portugal permitted the import of British textiles, while Britain committed itself to levy on Portuguese wine only 2/3 of the duty payable on French wine. A treaty of commerce and navigation which already included the most-favoured-nation clause was concluded at the same time as the Peace of Utrecht (Treaties of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation). Free trade, however, was still a thing of the future. Competing for trade with the Netherlands, Cromwell passed a Navigation Act in 1651 according to which foreign goods could only be imported into Britain on board British ships; if they were of European origin, however, they could be brought to Britain by ships belonging to nationals of the producer country. Britain only gradually relaxed these provisions.

29  Trade expanded to include human beings. As early as the 16^th century Spain granted asientos (licences) to private traders, mostly non-Spanish, who acquired African negroes from slave hunters, usually Arabic, and transported them for sale in the Spanish and British colonies (Slavery). It was not long before other European countries took part in this three-way traffic: European goods from Europe to Africa, slaves from there to America, and finally products from American plantations and raw materials back to European ports. At the time of the Peace of Utrecht 1713, Britain acquired from Spain the monopoly to supply slaves to the Spanish colonies—an example of an asientos agreement. The government transferred this monopoly to the South Sea Company. Between 1680 and 1786 British dealers alone transported over two million black slaves to America. In Europe and the US opposition to this traffic in persons gradually developed. The powers represented at the Congress of Vienna declared on 8 February 1815 (Declaration of the Eight Courts [Austria, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Spain and Sweden] [signed 8 February 1815] [1815] 63 CTS 473) that ‘the voice of the people has been raised in all civilized countries’ (ibid) against the trading in African slaves; they proclaimed in the name of all the Powers of Christendom their desire ‘to put an end to a scourge which has so long ravaged Africa, degraded Europe and afflicted humanity’ (at 475). In the course of the 19^th century maritime slave trading was largely stamped out by the British navy which, in accordance with an agreement of 20 December 1841 (Treaty between Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia for the Suppression of the African Slave Trade [signed 20 December 1841] [1841] 92 CTS 437), acted as a kind of maritime police force.

30  The growth of communications and trade led to the gradual dismantling of domestic provisions discriminating against aliens. On the basis of customary international law, aliens were accorded legal personality and could possess property. At the same time, most States laid claim to the property of aliens at death—ius albinagii, droit d’aubaine, right of escheat—or placed a high duty on their estate—ius detractus, droit de detraction. If the alien wished to leave the country, a gabella emigrationis (departure tax) was levied. Goods stranded on the beaches or driven in by the sea were regularly claimed by the coastal inhabitants or by the coastal State—ius litoris or ius naufragii, droit d’epave or droit de naufrage, Strandrecht. In numerous treaties concluded during this period, the abrogation of these rights was mutually agreed. A general adjustment of the legal position of aliens to that of nationals of European—Christian or civilized—States did not occur until the 19^th century when the influence of political and economic liberalism made itself felt. Certain treaties of friendship, commerce and navigation, however, contained provisions of this nature even before 1815.

31  There were also developments in private international law. The practice of lettres de marque (letters of reprisal) continued until the end of the 18^th century. If a private person had suffered damage at the hands of a foreign State or its nationals and had been unable to obtain compensation, the victim could claim a patent—a lettre de marque—which permitted him to seize ships or goods of the State, or its nationals, which had inflicted the injury. This was an example of authorized self-help by an injured party in times of peace and was not regarded as a warlike action.

32  In times of war, States augmented their naval forces by granting commissions to private entrepreneurs permitting them to attack not only enemy but also neutral shipping according to the laws of sea warfare (Privateering). The privateers were required to bring captured ships or their cargo into a port of their home country and submit them to the ruling of a prize court (Prize Law). The practice of issuing lettres de marque and letters of reprisal gave rise to much abuse. The corsairs—in the Caribbean Sea centred on Haiti, also called filibusters and buccaneers, and in the Mediterranean Sea emanating from the Barbary States of North Africa, such as Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, which had gained their independence from the Ottoman Empire—often overstepped the bounds dividing privateering from piracy. Piracy was defined as the use of force by a private ship on the high seas against another ship with the intention of enriching the master and crew of the attacking ship. Pirates were regarded as hostes humani generis (enemies of humanity) and could be punished as criminals by any State (International Criminal Law).

33  The international law of warfare during this period was characterized by the large number of agreements concluded by the military commanders of the belligerent parties. These military agreements (cartels) effected the exchange and release of prisoners of war. Wounded and sick enemies were to be returned as soon as possible to their armies and compensation had to be paid for their care (Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked). In the case of surrender, provision had to be made for the care of the sick and the wounded. Hospitals were exempt from seizure; a French–English cartel of 1743 declared military hospitals to be inviolable. The humanization of warfare had thus clearly begun (Humanitarian Law, International).

34  Ransom for prisoners and prisoners of war was still customary. For the release from Turkish captivity of the Spanish officer and dramatist Miguel Cervantes the sum of 500 gold ducats had to be paid to the Pasha of Algiers. The Barbary States were paid high ransoms for prisoners; these were otherwise at risk of being sold as slaves in the Near East. An Anglo-French treaty of 1780 stipulated ransom at the rate of 25 francs for a private soldier and of 1,500 francs for a field-marshal.

35  As regards neutrality in land warfare, the right of belligerent States to send troops over the territory of a neutral State was, with certain reservations, considered compatible with the current laws of neutrality.

36  In order to protect neutral trading in a maritime war the Dutch concluded a series of treaties shortly after the Peace of Westphalia embodying the principle of free ships, free goods (Neutrality in Naval Warfare). A number of other European countries followed suit. Only those goods which were directly intended for warlike purposes were qualified as contraband. During the Seven Years’ War—1756 to 1763—the British navy cut off all shipping links between France and its overseas possessions. The Dutch, as neutrals, took over this trade—which prompted Britain to declare their ships as valid prize. During this period, the rule of continuous voyage became generally accepted.

37  Belligerents claimed the ius angariae (the right to confiscate neutral ships and force their crews into service against the enemy). From the 17^th century onwards, treaties frequently contained provisions in which the parties mutually renounced this right; it therefore died out in the 18^th century.

38  When during the American War of Independence—1776 to 1783—the belligerents blocked the trade of neutrals, Russia addressed to them a declaration, supported by Austria, Denmark, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, the Kingdom of Sicily, and Sweden. The declaration demanded the freedom of shipping for all neutral ships, reiterated the principle of free ships, free goods and emphasized the need for the effectiveness of a blockade. Neutral ships should, however, be accompanied by warships—the convoy system; hence the concept of armed neutrality. Britain followed these rules only in part; the blockade it imposed on the European States occupied or controlled by France from 1800 to 1813 did not conform to the rules. However, the neutral States in their domestic legislation—eg the US in the Neutrality Act of 1794—contributed considerably to the development of the international laws of neutrality (Neutrality, Concept and General Rules).

39  The peaceful settlement of disputes by arbitration, envisaged in the Peace of Westphalia, was hardly ever resorted to in the period 1648 to 1815. The absolute monarchs were not prepared to subject their disputes to the decision of foreign umpires. Nor was the Pope appealed to as arbitrator by Catholic States. It was not until 1794 that arbitration clauses were included at the instigation of US Secretary of State John Jay in a British-American treaty intended to settle questions which had remained unresolved after the Peace of Paris of 1783, eg for settling the claims for damages of British and American nationals whose assets had been confiscated or whose ships had been seized by the enemy government (Jay Treaty [1794]). Each government was to appoint two commissioners who together would elect a fifth commissioner as chairman; in the absence of agreement he was to be chosen by lot. This commission was active from 1798 to 1804 and made over 536 awards. Some of these decisions created precedents which have had lasting repercussions.

Select Bibliography

• The Peace of Westphalia and its System:

• JJ Moser Commentarius ad articulum VI. instrumenti Pacis Westphalicae so da bestehet theils in einer historischen Erzehlung, was wegen Exemtion der löblichen schweitzerischen Edigenossenschaft … theils in einem gründlichen Beweis … mit Beylegung derer nöthigen actorum publicorum ausgefertiget (Multzens Franckfurt am Mayn 1731).
• GH Bougeant Histoire du Traité de Westphalie ou des négociations qui se firent à Munster & à Osnabrug, pour établir la paix entre toutes les puissances de l’Europe Richelieu et du cardinal Mazarin vols 2–3 (Mariette Paris 1744).
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• JS Pütter Geist des Westphälischen Friedens nach dem innern Gehalte und wahren Zusammenhange der darin verhandelten Gegenstände historisch und systematisch dargestellt (Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht Göttingen 1795).
• JJ Jusserand and A Rapisardi Mirabelli Grotius étudié par les secrétaires d’Ambassade Français en 1711: Le congrès de Westphalie (Brill Lugduni Batavorum 1929).
• M Braubach Der Westfälische Friede (Aschendorff Münster 1948).
• L Gross ‘The Peace of Westphalia’ (1948) 42 AJIL 20–41.
• H Wehberg ‘Die Schied- und Garantieklausel der Friedensverträge von Münster und Osnabrück’ (1948) 48 FW 281–96.
• R Laun Die Lehren des Westphälischen Friedens (Mölich Hamburg 1949).
• T Turrettini La signification des traités de Westphalie dans le domaine du droit des gens (Genevoise Genève 1949).
• F Dickmann Der Westfälische Frieden (6^th ed Aschendorff Münster 1992).

• Politics and International Law:

• J Rousset de Missy Les interêts présents des Puissances de l’Europe: Fondez sur les Traitez conclus depuis la Paix d’Utrecht inclusivement, & sur les Preuves de leurs Prétensions Particulieres vols 1–3 (Moetjens La Haye 1733).
• JJ Schmaus Die Historie der Balance von Europa, der Barriere der Niederlande, der Oesterreichischen Sanctionis pragmaticae, und anderer dahin gehoerigen Sachen und Tractaten in sich haltend (Gleditsch Leipzig 1741).
• GF von Martens Grundriß einer diplomatischen Geschichte der europäischen Staatshändel und Friedensschlüsse seit dem Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts bis zum Frieden zu Amiens: Zum Gebrauch academischer Vorlesungen (Mylius Berlin 1807).
• C Koch and F Schoell Histoire abrégée des traités de paix entre les puissances de l’Europe depuis la Paix de Westphalie: Ouvrage entièrement refondu, augmenté et continué jusqu’au Congrès de Vienne et aux Traités de Paris de 1815 vols 1–9 (Gide Paris 1817).
• T Lyman The Diplomacy of the United States: Being an Account of the Foreign Relations of the Country from the First Treaty with France, in 1778, to the Present Time vols 1–2 (2^nd ed Wells and Lilly Boston 1828).
• AHL Herren Handbuch der Geschichte des europäischen Staatensystems und seiner Colonien: Von seiner Bildung seit der Entdeckung beider Indien bis zu seiner Wiederherstellung nach dem Fall des Französischen Kaiserthrons, und der Freiwerdung von Amerika in zwei Theilen vols 1–2 (Röwer Göttingen 1830).
• G de Garden Histoire générale des traités de paix et autres transactions principales entre toutes les puissances de l’Europe depuis la paix de Westphalie: Ouvrage contenant les travaux de Koch, Schoell, etc. continués jusqu’à nos jours vols 1–14 (Paris Amyot 1848–87).
• F Combes Histoire générale de la diplomatie européenne: Histoire de la formation de l’équilibre européen par les traités de Westphalie et des Pyrénées (Dentu Paris 1854).
• D de Barral Etude sur l’histoire diplomatique de l’Europe de 1648 à 1791 vol 1 1648-1792 vol 2 1789-1815 (2^nd ed Plon Paris 1885).
• A Fournier Der Kongreß von Chatillon: Die Politik im Kriege von 1814 (Tempsky Wien 1900).
• R Dollot Les origines de la neutralité de la Belgique et le système de la barrière: 1609–1830 (Alcan Paris 1902).
• E Kaeber Die Idee des europäischen Gleichgewichts in der publizistischen Literatur vom 16. bis zur Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts (Duncker Berlin 1907).
• E Gagliardi Die Entstehung der schweizerischen Neutralität (Rascher Zürich 1915).
• J ter Meulen Der Gedanke der internationalen Organisation in seiner Entwicklung vol 1 1300–1800 (Nijhoff Haag 1917).
• A Rein ‘Über die Bedeutung der überseeischen Ausbreitung für das europäische Staaten-System’ (1928) 137 Historische Zeitschrift 28–90.
• W Windelband Die auswärtige Politik der Großmächte in der Neuzeit von 1494 bis zur Gegenwart: Von 1494 bis zur Gegenwart; mit 10 Karten (3^rd ed Essener Verlags-Anstalt Essen 1936).
• EF Malcolm-Smith British Diplomacy in the Eighteenth Century (Williams & Norgate London 1937).
• P Roberts The Quest for Security 1715–1740 (Harper & Row New York 1947).
• CL Lange and A Schou Histoire de l’internationalisme vol 2 De la Paix de Westphalie jusqu’au Congrès de Vienne (Aschehoug Oslo 1954).
• G Zeller and P Renouvin Histoire des relations internationales vol 3 De Louis XIV à 1789 (Hachette Paris 1955).
• T Ruyssen Les sources doctrinales de l’internationalisme vol 2 De la paix de Westphalie à la Révolution française (Presses Universitaires de France Paris 1958).

• European International Law:

• A de Wicquefort Mémoires touchant les ambassadeurs et les ministres publics (Streucker A La Haye 1677).
• A de Wiquefort L’ambassadeur et ses fonctions (Steucker A La Haye 1680).
• F de Callières De la manière de négocier avec les souverains: De l’utilité des négociations, du choix des ambassadeurs & des envoyés, & des qualités nécessaires pour réussir dans ces emplois (Londres Nourse 1716).
• C Jenkinson A Discourse on the Conduct of the Government of Great Britain: In Respect to Neutral Nations, During the Present War (2^nd ed London Hulton Bradley 1759).
• W Blackstone Commentaries on the Laws of England vols 1–4 (Clarendon Oxford 1765–69, reprinted by Oceana New York 1966).
• GB de Mably Le droit public de l’Europe: Fondé sur les traités vols 1–3 (Compagnie de Libraires Genève 1776).
• JJ Moser Versuch des neuesten europäischen Völker-Rechts in Friedens- und Kriegs-Zeiten: Vornehmlich aus denen Staatshandlungen derer europäischen Mächten, auch anderen Begebenheiten, so sich seit dem Tode Kayser Carls VI. im Jahr 1740 zugetragen haben vols 1–10 (Varrentrapp Sohn und Venner Frankfurt am Mayn 1777–1780).
• PJ Neyron Essai historique et politique sur les garanties et en général sur les diverses méthodes des anciens et des nations modernes de l’Europe d’assurer les traités publics (Dieterich Goettingue 1777).
• KA von Martini Positiones de lege naturali (Huber Confluentiae 1780).
• F Galiani De’ doveri de’ principi neutrali verso i principi guerreggianti e di questi verso i neutrali (Milano 1782) vol 2.
• GF von Martens Versuch über die Existenz eines positiven Europäischen Völkerrechts und den Nutzen dieser Wissenschaft: Nebst einer Anzeige seiner in dem nächsten Winter halben Jahre zu haltenden Vorlesungen (Dieterich Göttingen 1787).
• GF von Martens Einleitung in das positive europäische Völkerrecht auf Verträge und Herkommen gegründet (Dieterich Göttingen 1796).
• DA Azuni Le droit maritime de l’Europe vols 1–2 (Azuni Paris 1805).
• J Burney History of the Buccaneers of America (Payne & Foss London 1816).
• GF de Martens Précis du droit de gens moderne de l’Europe vols 1–2 (2^nd ed Guillaumin Paris 1864).
• H Wheaton Histoire du progrès du droit des gens en Europe et en Amérique depuis la Paix de Westphalie jusqu’a nos jours: Avec une introduction sur les progrès du droit des gens en Europe avant la paix de Westphalie vols 1–2(4^th ed Brockhaus Leipzig 1865).
• M Dufraisse Histoire du Droit de Guerre et de Paix de 1789 à 1815 (Chevalier Paris 1867).
• JL Klüber Droit de gens moderne de l’Europe: Avec un supplément contenant une bibliothèque choisie du droit des gens (2^nd ed Aillaud Paris 1874).
• K Bergbohm Die bewaffnete Neutralität: 1780–1783: Eine Entwicklungsphase des Völkerrechts im Seekriege (Puttkammer und Mühlbrecht Berlin 1884).
• O Krauske Die Entwicklung der ständigen Diplomatie: Vom fünfzehnten Jahrhundert bis zu den Beschlüssen von 1815 und 1818 (Duncker und Humblot Berlin 1885).
• P Fauchille La diplomatie française et la ligue des neutres de 1780 (1776–1783) (Pedone-Lauriel Paris 1893).
• E Chevalley Essay sur le droit des gens napoléonien d’après la correspondance vol 1 1800–1807 (Delagrave Paris 1912).
• E Chevalley La déclaration du droit des gens de l’abbé Grégoire (1793–1795): Etude sur le droit international public intermédiaire (Barbey Le Claire 1912).
• K Schönlank ‘Aus dem Kriegsrecht der deutschen Befreiungskriege 1813–1815’ (1914) 8 Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht 233–46.
• R Redslob Das Problem des Völkerrechts: Eine Studie über den Fortschritt der Nationen zu einem universellen Staatensystem, das die Geltung des Völkerrechts verbürgt (Veit Leipzig 1917).
• JB Scott The Armed Neutralities of 1780 and 1800: A Collection of Official Documents Preceded by the Views of Representative Publicists (OUP New York 1918).
• ER Adair The Extraterritoriality of Ambassadors in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Longmans Green London 1929).
• R Octavio ‘Les sauvages américains devant le droit’ (1930) 31 RdC 181–291.
• W Simons The Evolution of International Public Law in Europe since Grotius (Yale University New Haven 1931).
• R Pares War and Trade in the West Indies 1739–1763 (Clarendon Oxford 1936).
• J Maríny Mendoza Historia del derecho natural y de gentes (Instituto de Estudios Políticos Madrid 1950).
• G Langrod ‘Les traités des Indiens d’Amérique du Nord entre 1621 et 1871’ in Société Jean Bodin pour l’Histoire Comparative des Institutions (ed) Recueils de la Société Jean Bodin pour l’Histoire Comparative des Institutions vol 15/2 La Paix (Dessain & Tolra Paris 1961) 415–48.
• E Bonjour Geschichte der schweizerischen Neutralität: Vier Jahrunderte eidgenössischer Außenpolitik vol 1 (3^rd ed Helbing & Lichtenhahn Basel 1967).
• R Pares Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights, 1739–1763 (Porcupine Philadelphia 1975).
• F Crouzet L’économie britannique et le blocus continental (2^nd ed Economica Paris 1987).

• The Ottoman Empire and the Near East:

• JH Pott and G Funk De foederis fidelium cum infidelibus(Bauhofer Jena 1686).
• GB Depping Histoire du commerce entre le Levant et l’Europe depuis les croisades jusqu’à la fondation des colonies d’Amérique vols 1–2 (Imprimerie Royale Paris 1830).
• J von Hammer-Purgstall Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches grossentheils aus bisher unbenützten Handschriften und Archiven vols 1–4 (2^nd ed Hartleben Pesth 1840).
• E Baasch Die Hansestädte und die Barbaresken: Mit einem Anhang (Brunnemann Kassel 1897).
• A Sorel La question d’orient au XVIIIe siècle: Le partage de la Pologne et le traité de Kaïnardji (Plon Paris 1902).
• P Masson Histoire des établissements et du commerce français dans l’Afrique Barbaresque: 1560–1793: Algérie, Tunisie, Tripolitaine, Maroc (Hachette Paris 1903).
• M Herbette Une ambassade persane sous Louis XIV d’après des documents inédits, avec treize planches hors texte (Perrin & Cie Paris 1907).
• JEG de Montmorency ‘The Barbary States in International Law’ (1919) 4 Grotius Society Transactions 87–94.
• RW Irwin The Diplomatic Relations of the United States with the Barbary Powers 1776–1816 (University of North Carolina Chapel Hill 1931).
• F Charles-Roux France et Afrique du Nord avant 1830: Les précurseurs de la conquête (Alcan Paris 1932).
• F Charles-Roux, and J Caillé Missions diplomatiques à Fès (1533-1912) (Larose Paris 1955).
• MK Nawaz ‘The doctrine of “Jihad” in Islamic Legal Theory and Practice’ (1959) 8 IndianYBIntlAff 32–48.

• South and South-East Asia:

• S de Freitas De justo imperio lusitanorum asiatico: Ad Philippum IIII. Hisp et Indiarum monarcham (Vallisoleti 1625).
• GTF Raynal Histoire philosophique et politique des établissements & du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes vols 1–8 (Amsterdam 1773–74).
• J Morrison The Advantages of an Alliance with the Great Mogul: In which are Principally Considered Three Points of the Highest Importance to the British Nation … (Cadell London 1774).
• L Lanier Etude historique sur les relations de la France et du royaume de Siam de 1662 à 1703 d’après les documents inédits: Des Archives du Ministère de la Marine et des Colonies avec le Fac-simile d’une carte du temps vols 1–8 (Aubert Versailles 1883).
• J Kohler ‘Handelsverträge der niederländisch-ostindischen Companie’ (1910) 4 Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht 140–60.
• EJ Rapson The Cambridge History of India vols 1–7 (Chand New Delhi 1922–53).
• A Duarte Les premières relations entre les Français et les princes indigènes dans l’Inde au XVIIe siècle: (1666–1706) (Jouve Paris 1932).
• ES de Klerck History of Netherlands East Indies vols 1–2 (Brusse Rotterdam 1938).
• G Coedes Les états hindouisés d’Indochine et d’Indonésie (Boccard Paris 1948).
• RC Majumdar, HC Raychaudhuri, and K Datta An Advanced History of India (2^nd ed Macmillan London 1950).
• KAN Sastri ‘Inter-State Relations in Asia’ (1953) 2 IndianYBIntlAff 133–53.
• LW Alders Internationale rechtspraak tussen Indonesische Rijken en de V.O.C. tot 1700 (Centrale Drukkerij Nijmegen 1955).
• CJ Chacko ‘India’s Contribution to the Field of International Law Concepts’ (1958) 93 RdC 117–221.
• CH Alexandrowicz ‘Treaty and Diplomatic relations between European and South Asian Powers in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’ (1960) 100 RdC 203–321.
• CH Alexandrowicz ‘The Afro-Asian World and the Law of Nations: Historical Aspects’ (1968) 123 RdC 117–214.
• JH Parry Trade and Dominion: The European Overseas Empires in the Eighteenth Century (Weidenfeld and Nicolson London 1971).
• S Verosta ‘Der Vertrag zwischen Portugal und dem Marathen-Staat von 1779: Europäisches oder universelles Völkerrecht?’ in A Böhm, C Lüderessen, and K-H Ziegler (eds) Idee und Realität des Rechts in der Entwicklung interntionaler Beziehungen: Festgabe für Wolfgang Preiser (Nomos-Verlags-Gesellschaft Baden-Baden 1983) 95–109.
• DGE Hall A History of South-East Asia (4^th ed Macmillan London 1981).

• The Far East:

• A Montanus Denckwürdige Gesandtschafften der Ost-Indischen Gesellschaft in den Vereinigten Niederländern: an unterschiedliche Keyser von Japan: […]: Aus den Schriften und Reyseverzeichnüssen gemelter Gesanten gezogen (Meurs Amsterdam 1670).
• GL Staunton An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China Including Cursory Observations Made, and Information Obtained, in Travelling Through that Ancient Empire, and a Small Part of Chinese Tartary vols 1–2 (Nicol London 1798).
• O Nachod Die Beziehungen der Niederländischen Ostindischen Kompagnie in Japan im siebzehnten Jahrhundert (Pass & Garleb Berlin 1897).
• H Cordier Histoire des relations de la Chine avec les puissances occidentales vols 2–3 L’empereur Kouang-Siu (Alcan Paris 1902).
• H Haas Geschichte des Christentums in Japan vols 1–2 (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens Tokyo 1902–04).
• B Krieger Die ersten hundert Jahre russisch-chinesischer Politik (Heinemann Berlin 1904).
• H Mueller ‘Buddhistisches Völkerrecht aus Tibet’ (1907) 1 Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht 611–13.
• H Mueller ‘Über die Natur des Völkerrechts und seine Quellen in China’ (1909) 3 Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht 192–205.
• HB Morse The International Relations of the Chinese Empire vols 1–3 (Longmans Green London 1910–18).
• J Murdoch, I Yamagata, and JH Longford A History of Japan vols 1–3 (Kegan Paul 1910–26).
• E Backhouse and JOP Bland Annals and Memoirs of the Court of Peking: From the 16^th to the 20^th Century (Heinemann London 1914).
• H Cordier Histoire générale de la Chine et de ses relations avec les pays étrangers depuis les temps les plus anciens jusqu’ à la chute de la dynastie Mandchoue vols 1–3 (Geuthner Paris 1920).
• KS Latourette A History of Christian Missions in China (Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge London 1929, reprinted by Ch’eng Wen Taipei 1973).
• J Escarra La Chine et le droit international (Pedone Paris 1931).
• RH Akagi Japan’s Foreign Policy 1542–1936: A Short History (Hokuseido Tokyo 1936).
• W Eberhard Chinas Geschichte (Francke Bern 1948).
• E Brazão Apontamentos para a historia das relações diplomaticas de Portugal com a China: 1516–1753 (Agência geral das colónias Lisboa 1949).
• HA Cohen ‘China’s Attitudes toward International Law and Our Own’ [1967] ASILPROC 108–16.
• K Iriye ‘The Principles of International Law in the Light of Confucian Doctrine’ (1967) 120 RdC 1–59.
• M Mancall Russia and China: Their Diplomatic Relations to 1728 (Harvard University Cambridge 1971).
• G Kaminski Chinesische Positionen zum Völkerrecht (Duncker & Humblot Berlin 1973).
• O Franke Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches: Eine Darstellung seiner Entstehung, seines Wesens und seiner Entwicklung bis zur neuesten Zeit vols 1–5 (2^nd ed De Gruyter Berlin 2001).

• The European Doctrine of International Law 1648–1815:

• J von Felde Annotata ad H. Grotium de iure pacis et belli, quibus immixtae sunt responsiones ad stricturas Graswinckelii (Birckner Jenae 1635).
• R Zouche and TE Holland (eds) Iuris et Iudicii fecialis, sive, iuris inter Gentes et quaestionum de eodem explication: Qua quae ad Pacem & Bellum inter diversos Principes, aut Populos spectant, ex praecipuis Historico-jure-peritis, exhibentur: A Reproduction of the First Edition (1650), with Introduction, List of Errata, and Table of Authors (Oxford 1650, reprinted by Carnegie Institution Washington DC 1911).
• JA Osiander Observationes maximam partem theologicae in libros 3 de iure belli et pacis Hugonis Grotii (Cotta Tübingae 1671).
• S von Pufendorf, Elementorum jurisprudentiae universalis libri duo vols 1–2 (1672, reprinted by Clarendon Oxford 1931).
• S Rachel and CL von Bar (eds) De iure naturae et gentium dissertationes (1676, reprinted by Carnegie Institution Washington DC 1916).
• V Veltheim Introductio ad Hugonis Grotii illustre ac commendatissimum opus de Jure Belli Et Pacis ejusque omnes libros ac singula capita ubi simul Elementa Scientiæ De Juris Naturæ Et Gentium Prudentia: Una cum præcipuis materiis moralibus ac politicis, ut & quæstionibus controversis recepta facilique methodo traduntur (Bielke Jenae 1676).
• GW Leibniz De jure suprematus ac legationis principum Germaniae (Elzevier Amsterdam 1677).
• B de Spinoza ‘Ethica Ordine Geometrico demonstrata, Et In quinque Partes distincta …’ in B de Spinoza Opera Posthuma: Quorum series post Præfationem exhibetur (Rieuwertsz Amsterdam 1677).
• B de Spinoza ‘Tractatus Politicus: In quo demonstratur, quomodò Societas, ubi Imperium Monarchicum locum habet …’ in B de Spinoza Opera Posthuma: Quorum series post Præfationem exhibetur (Rieuwertsz Amsterdam 1677).
• V Alberti Compendium Iuris Naturae Orthodoxae Theologiae Conformatum Et In Duas Partes Distributum (Frommamus Lipsiae 1678).
• JW Textor and CL von Bar (eds) Synopsis iuris gentium (Basel 1680, reprinted by Carnegie Institution Washington DC 1916).
• S von Pufendorf De officio hominis et civis juxta legem naturalem, libri duo (1682, reprinted by OUP New York 1927).
• JG von Kulpis Collegium Grotianum, Super Iure Belli Ac Pacis: Anno M DC LXXXII. In Academia Giessensi XV. Exercitationibus primùm institutum, Nunc locis aliquot auctum, altera vice editum (Fabri Gießen 1686).
• S von Pufendorf De iure naturae et gentium: Libri octo vols 1–2 (1688, reprinted by Clarendon Oxford 1934).
• C Thomasius Institutionum jurisprudentiae divinae libri III, in quibus fundamenta juris naturae secundum hypotheses ill. Pufendorfii perspicuo demonstrantur (2^nd ed Salfeld Halae 1694).
• JF Buddeus Historia iuris naturalis (Zeitler Hallae 1695).
• C Thomasius Fundamento iuris naturae et gentium exsensu communi deducta: inquibus ubique secernuntur principia honesti, justi ac decori, cum adjuncta emendatione ad iusta fundamenta, institutionem jurisprudentiae divinae (Salfeld Halae 1705).
• JJ Moser Commentarius Ad Articulum VI. Instrumenti Pacis Westphalicæ: So da bestehet Theils in einer historischen Erzehlung, was wegen Exemtion der löblichen Schweitzerischen Eydgenossenschafft von dem H. Röm. Reich bey und nach denen Westphälischen Friedens-Tractaten fürgegangen […] (Multzens Franckfurt am Mayn 1731).
• JJ Moser Die gerettete völlige Souveraineté der löblichen Schweitzerischen Eydgenossenschafft: […]: Mit Beylegung der nöthigen Actorum publicorum (Schramm Tubingen 1731).
• JJ Moser Anfangsgründe der Wissenschaft von der heutigen Staats-Verfassung von Europa und dem unter denen Potenzien üblichen Völcker- oder allgemeinen Staatsrecht (Cotta Tübingen 1732).
• C van Bynkershoek Quaestionum iuris publici libri duo (Leiden 1737, reprinted by Clarendon Oxford 1930) vols 1–2.
• JJ Moser Teutsches Staatsrecht vols 1–50 (Stein Nürnberg 1737–53).
• J Barbeyrac Histoire Des Anciens Traitez, Ou Recueil Historique Et Chronologique Des Traitez répandus dans les Auteurs Grecs & Latins, & autres Monuments de l’Antiquité, Depuis Les Tems Les Plus Reculez, Jusques L’Empereur Charlemagne vol 2 Qui contient tout le tems depuis Jèsus-Christ, jusqu’à la mort de Charlemagne (Janssons à Waesberge Amsterdam 1739).
• C von Wolff Ius naturae: Methodo scientifica pertractatum vols 1–8 (Renger Francofurti 1740–48).
• R Cumberland and J Barbeyrac (eds) De legibus naturae disquisitio philosophica (Amsterdam 1744, reprinted by Centre de Philosophie Politique et Juridique de l’Université Caen 1989).
• HS de Cocceji and H Grotius Grotius illustratus seu commentarii ad Hugonis Grotii de iure belli et pacis libros tres in quibus ius naturae & gentium, item iuris publici praecipua explicantur vols 1–4 (Korn Wratislaviae 1744–52).
• JG Heineccius Praelectiones academicae in Hugonis Grotii de iure belli et pacis libros tres (Rüdiger Berlin 1744).
• GM Horn Dissertatio inavgvralis jvridica sistens observationes jvris gentivm & jvris pvblici vniversalis: Ad viri illvstris Hvgonis Grotii libros tres: De jvre belli et pacis (Hering Erfordiae 1744).
• C van Bynkershoek De dominio maris dissertatio (2^nd ed 1744, reprinted by OUP New York 1923).
• C van Bynkershoek De foro legatorum liber singularis: A photographic reproduction of the text of 1744 with an English translation (1744, reprinted by Clarendon Oxford 1946).
• JJ Burlamaqui Principes du droit naturel (Barrillot Genève 1747).
• C von Wolff Institutiones iuris naturae et gentium: In quibus ex ipsa hominis natura continuo nexu omnes obligationes et jura omnia deducuntur (Officina Rengeriana Halle 1750).
• JJ Burlamaqui Principes du droit politique (Chatelain Amsterdam 1751) vols 1–2.
• JJ Moser Grund-Saeze des Europaeischen Voelcker-Rechts in Kriegs-Zeiten: Vormahl zum Gebrauch seiner Staats- und Kanzley-Academie entworffen, und nun, mit einem Anhang, von deme, was in Ansehung des Parthie-Gehens Völcker-Rechtens ist, an das Licht gestellet (Cotta Tuebingen 1752).
• E de Vattel Le droit des gens ou principes de la loi naturelle vols 1–2 (1758, reprinted by Carnegie Institution Washington DC 1916).
• C von Wolff and JHS Formey (eds) Principes du droit de la nature et des gens vols 1–3 (Amsterdam 1758, reprinted by Centre de Philosophie politique et juridique Caen 1988).
• JF von Bielefeld Institutions politiques (Gosse La Haye 1760) vols 1–4.
• GM Lampredi De licentia in hostem liber singularis in quo Samuelis Cocceii sententia de infinita licentia in hostem exponitur et confutatur (Florenz 1761).
• JJ Moser Grund-Sätze des jetzt üblichen Europäischen Völcker-Rechts in Friedens-Zeiten, auch anderer unter denen Europäischen Souverainen und Nationen zu solcher Zeit fürkommender willkührlicher Handlungen (Raspe Franckfurt am Mayn 1763).
• JG Heineccius Elementa iuris naturae et gentium: Commada auditoribus methodo adornata (Pasquali Neapel 1764).
• C von Wolff Ius gentium methodo scientifica pertractatum (1764, reprinted by Clarendon Oxford 1934).
• JJ Burlamaqui and FB de Félice Principes du droit de la nature et des gens: Avec la suite du droit de la nature qui n’avait pas encore paru vols 1–2 (Yverdon 1766–68).
• G Achenwall Staatsverfassung der heutigen vornehmsten Europäischen Reiche und Völker im Grundriss (5^th ed Vandenhoeck Göttingen 1768).
• JJ Moser Teutsches auswärtiges Staats-Recht: Nach denen Reichs-Gesezen und dem Reichs-Herkommen, wie auch aus denen teutschen Staats-Rechts-Lehrern und eigener Erfahrung (Franckfurt 1772, reprinted by Zeller Osnabrück 1967).
• JJ Moser Von der reichsverfassungsmäßigen Freyheit von Teutschen Staats-Sachen zu schreiben (Dieterich Göttingen 1772).
• CG Günther Grundriß eines europäischen Völkerrechts nach Vernunft, Verträgen, Herkommen und Analogie: Mit Anwendung auf die teutschen Reichsstände (Montag Regensburg 1777).
• JJ Moser Erste Grundlehren des jetzigen Europäischen Völcker-Rechts, in Fridens- und Kriegs-Zeiten (Raspe Nürnberg 1778).
• G Achenwall Die Staatsklugheit nach ihren ersten Grundsätzen entworfen (4^th ed Vandenhoeck Göttingen 1779).
• G Achenwall Iuris naturalis pars posterioir: Complectens ius familiae, ius publicum et ius gentium: In usum audiorum (8^th ed Bossiegel Goettingae 1781).
• FAW Wenck Codex iuris gentium: E Tabvlariorvm Exemplorvmque Fide Dignorum Monvmentis Compositvs vols 1–3 (Weidmann et Reich Lipsiae 1781–95).
• JJ Burlamaqui Eléments du droit naturel (Lausanne 1783).
• DHL von Ompteda and KCAH von Kamptz Literatur des gesamten natürlichen und positiven Völkerrechts (Regensburg and Berlin 1785–1817, reprinted by Scientia Aalen 1963–65).
• CG Günther Europäisches Völkerrecht in Friedenzeiten nach Vernunft, Verträgen, Herkommen und Analogie mit Anwendung auf die teutschen Reichsstände vols 1–2 (Richter Altenburg 1787–92).
• F Saalfeld Grundriß eines Systems des Europäischen Völkerrechts (Röwer Göttingen 1809).
• JMG de Rayneval De la Liberté des mers (Treuttel et Wurtz Paris 1811).
• H de Saint-Simon De la réorganisation de la société européenne: Ou de la nécessité et des moyens de rassembler les peuples de l’Europe en un seul corps politique en conservant à chacun son indépendance nationale (1814, reprinted by Centre de recherches européennes Lausanne 1967).
• B de Spinoza and CH Bruder (eds) Benedicti de Spinoza opera quae supersunt omnia vol 3 Tractatus theologico-politicus, compendium grammatices linguae Hebraeae (Tauschnitz Leipzig 1846).
• JMG de Rayneval Institutions du droit de la nature et des gens vols 1–2 (Rey et Gravier Paris 1882).
• E Burke and FG Selby (eds) Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (Macmillan London 1890).
• KCF Krause and H Reichel (eds) Entwurf eines europäischen Staatenbundes als Basis des allgemeinen Friedens und rechtliches Mittel gegen jeden Angriff wider die innere und äußere Freiheit Europas (Meiner Leipzig 1920).
• I Kant ‘Der Rechtslehre Zweiter Teil: Das öffentliche Recht’ in Metaphysik der Sitten (K Vorländer ed, 4^th ed Felix Meiner Leipzig 1922) 131–86.
• I Kant ‘Zum Ewigen Frieden’ in Kleinere Schriften zur Geschichtsphilosophie, Ethik und Politik (K Vorländer ed, 2^nd ed Felix Meiner Leipzig 1922) 115–69.
• J Bentham A Comment on the Commentaries: A Criticism of William Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Law of England (Clarendon Oxford 1928).
• J Bentham and JH Burns (eds) Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Athlone Press London 1970, reprinted by Methuen London 1982).
• J Bentham, JH Burns and F Rosen (eds) The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham (Athlone London and Clarendon Oxford 1983–98).
• E Burke Select Works vol 3 Letters on a Regicide Peace (Liberty Fund Indianapolis 1999).

Select Documents

• CU Aitchison (ed), A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads relating to India and Neighbouring Countries (5^th ed Government of India Central Publication Branch Calcutta 1929–33).
• B Bernard, Recueil des traitez de paix, de trêve, de neutralité, de suspension d’armes, de confédération, d’alliance, de commerce, de garantie et d’autres actes publics, commes contracts de mariage, testaments, manifestes, déclarations de guerre, etc. faits entre les empereurs, rois, républiques, princes, et autres puissances de l’Europe, et des autres parties du monde vols 1–4 (Boom Amsterdam 1700).
• L Bittner and others, Repertorium der diplomatischen Vertreter aller Länder seit dem Westfälischen Frieden (1648) vols 1–3 (Fretz und Wasmuth Zürich 1936–65).
• PJB Buchez and PC Roux-Lavergne Histoire parlementaire de la Révolution française ou Journal des assemblées nationales depuis 1789 jusqu’en 1815 vols 1–40 (Paulin Paris 1834).
• GF de Martens (ed), Recueil des principaux traités d’Alliance, de Paix, de Trêve, de Neutralité, de commerce, de limites, d’échange etc. conclus par les Puissances de l’Europe tant entre elles qu’avec les Puissances et Etats dans d’autres Parties du monde: Depuis 1761 jusqu’à présent vols 1–7 (Dieterich Gottingue 1791–1801).
• GF de Martens (ed), Supplément au Recueil des principaux traités d’Alliance, de Paix, de Trêve, de Neutralité, de commerce, de limites, d’échange etc. conclus par les Puissances de l’Europe tant entre elles qu’avec les Puissances et Etats dans d’autres Parties du monde: Depuis 1761 jusqu’à présent vols 1–4 (Dieterich Gottingue 1802–08).
• J de Testa, Recueil des traités de la Porte ottomane avec les puissances étrangères depuis le premier traité conclu, en 1536, entre Suléyman Ier et François Ier jusqu’à nos jours vols 1–11 (Amyot Paris 1864–1911).
• J Dumont (ed), Corps Universel Diplomatic du Droit des Gens: Contenant un Recueil des Traitez d’Alliance, de Paix, de Trêve, de Neutralité, de Commerce, d’échange, de Protection & de Garantie; de toutes les Conventions, Transactions, Pactes, Concordats et autres Contrats, qui ont été faits en Europe depuis le Règne de l’Empereur Charlemagne jusques à présent … vols 1–5 (Brunel Amsterdam 1726–28).
• J Dumont and J Rousset de Missy (eds), Supplément au Corps Universel Diplomatique du Droit des Gens, contenant l’Histoire des anciens Traitez, Ou Recueil Historique & Chronologique des Traitez répandus dans Auteurs Grecs & Latins, & autres Monumens de l’Antiquité, depuis les temps les plus reculez jusques à l’Empire de Charlemagne … vols 1–5 (Jansson à Waesberge Amsterdam 1739).
• CW Gärtner (ed), Westphälische Friedens-Cantzley: Darinnen die von Anno 1643. biß Anno 1648. Bey denen Münster- und Oßnabrückischen Friedens-Tractaten Geführte geheime Correspondence, ertheilte Instructiones, erstattete Relationes, und andere besondere Nachrichten enthalten; Nebst einer vollständigen Historie des Westphälischen Friedens-Schlusses vols 1–9 (Lankisch Leipzig 1731–38).
• TE Heeres and FW Stapel (eds), Corpus diplomaticum neerlando-indicum: Verzameling van politieke contracten en verdere verdragen door de Nederlannders in het Oosten gesloten, van privilegebrieven, aan hen verleend, enz vols 1–5 (Nijhoff’s-Gravenhage 1907–38).
• JC Hurewitz Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East: A Documentary Record vol 1 1535–1914 (Van Nostrand Princeton 1956).
• GW Leibniz (ed), Codex iuris gentium diplomaticus: in quo tabulae authenticae actorum publicorum, tractatuum, aliarumque rerum majoris momenti per Europam gestarum … continentur, … quem ex manuscriptis Bibliothecae Augustae Guelferbytanae codicibus … vols 1–2 (Ammon Hannoverae 1693–1700).
• W Logan (ed), A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Other Papers of Importance relating to British Affairs in Malabar (2^nd ed 1891, reprinted by Asian Educational Service New Delhi 1989).
• JB Moore (ed) A Digest of International Law: As Embodied in Diplomatic Discussions, Treaties and other International Agreements, International Awards, the Decisions of Municipal Courts, and the Writings of Jurists, and Especially in Documents, Published and Unpublished, Issued by Presidents and Secretaries of State of the United States, the Opinions of the Attorneys-General, and the Decisions of Courts, Federal and State vols 1–8 (United States Printing Office Washington DC 1906).
• G Noradounghian (ed), Recueil d’actes internationaux de l’Empire Ottoman: Traités, conventions, arrangements, déclarations, protocoles, procès-verbaux, firmans, bérats, lettres patentes et autres documents relatifs au droit public extérieur de la Turquie vols 1–4 (Cotillon Paris 1897–1903).
• T Rymer and Robert Sanderson (eds), Foedera, conventions, literae et cujuscunque genesis acta publica: Inter reges Angliae, et alios quosvis imperatores, reges, pontifices, principes, vel communitates, ab ineunte saeculo duodecimo, viz. ab Anno 1101. Ad nostra usque tempora, habita aut tractate vols 1–17 (2^nd ed Tonson Londini 1704–17).
• JJ Schmauss (ed) Corpus iuris gentium academicum: Enthaltend die vornehmsten Grund-Gesetze, Friedens- und Commercien-Tractate, Bündnüsse und andere Pacta der Königreiche, Republiquen und Staaten von Europa, welche seither zweyen Seculis biß auf den gegenwärtigen Congress zu Soissons errichtet worden vols 1–2 (Gleditsch Leipzig 1730).
• GB Volz and G Küntzel (eds) Preussische und österreichische Acten zur Vorgeschichte des siebenjährigen Krieges (Hirzel Leipzig 1899).