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Oxford Law Citator
Contents
Expand All
Collapse All
Preliminary Material
Dedication
Preface
Contents
Table of Cases
International Case Law
Eritrea Ethiopia Claims Commission
European Court of Human Rights
European Court of Justice
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
Inter-American Court of Human Rights
International Court of Justice
International Criminal Court
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg
Permanent Court of Arbitration
Permanent Court of International Justice
Special Court for Sierra Leone
Special Tribunal for Lebanon
UN Committee Against Torture
UN Human Rights Committee
National Courts
Australia
Canada
Croatia
France
Germany
Greece
Israel
Italy
Netherlands
New Zealand
United Kingdom
United States
Table of Agreements Conventions Instruments, Treaties and National Legislation
European Union
International
UN Resolutions
National
Australia
Austria
Cambodia
Canada
France
Greece
Israel
New Zealand
Pakistan
Sierra Leone
Singapore
South Africa
Switzerland
United Kingdom
United States
List of Abbreviations
Notes on the Contributors
Main Text
Part I Introduction
Ch.1 Current Challenges to International Humanitarian Law
1 Henry Dunant and the Birth and Development of International Humanitarian Law
2 The Principal Failings of Current IHL
A The total and asymmetric nature of modern armed conflicts
B Other specific deficiencies of IHL
(i) Guerrillas and terrorists are discouraged from respecting IHL
(ii) IHL Fails to place limits on the military might of the Great Powers
(iii) IHL fails to control the actions of ‘private contractors’
(iv) IHL fails to detect violations
(v) IHL fails to secure compensation to victims
3 How Can Armed Conflicts Be Made Less Inhumane?
A A modest tripartite proposal
(i) The drawing up of non-binding guidelines
(ii) Setting up flexible and effective monitoring mechanisms
(iii) Compensating victims
B Who can we count on?
Ch.2 The Role of the International Committee of the Red Cross
1 Introduction
2 The ICRC’s Mandate and Activities
A Compliance with IHL
(i) Specific challenges related to non-international armed conflicts
(ii) Mechanisms to promote or ensure compliance
B Clarification of rules of IHL
C Development of IHL
3 The Role of the ICRC Going Forward
Part II Sources
Ch.3 Customary Humanitarian Law Today
1 The Roots of the Revival of Customary International Law
2 Customary International Law in the Non-Criminal International Courts
3 The Customary Law Jurisprudence of the ICTY
4 The Customary Law Jurisprudence of the Other International Criminal Courts
5 Conclusion
Ch.4 Treaties for Armed Conflict
1 Importance of Treaties in the Law of Armed Conflict
2 Treaties and Customary International Law
3 Main Treaties
4 Problems of Ratification of IHL Treaties
5 Reservations to IHL Treaties
6 Legal Relationships between IHL Treaties
7 Interpretation of IHL Treaties
8 Special Agreements
(1)
(2)
9 Denunciation of IHL Treaties
10 Legal Effects of a Breach of an IHL Treaty
Part III Legal Regimes
Ch.5 Land Warfare
1 Introduction
2 Principles and Rules of IHL to be Observed by Foot Soldiers
A General observations
B Respect for and protection of civilians and civilian property
(i) The humanitarian face of the principle of military necessity
(ii) The principle of humanity and the obligation to ‘protect’ civilians
(iii) The principle of distinction
(iv) Prohibition of denial of quarter or threats to deny quarter
(v) Evacuation of besieged areas
(vi) Prohibition on using human shields
(vii) Prohibition of perfidy
(viii) The principles of precaution and proportionality
(ix) Searching for guerrilla fighters and civilians who have taken part in the hostilities
(x) Response to the use of human shields
C Respect for and protection of other non-combatants
(i) Respect for and protection of the wounded and sick
(ii) Respect for and protection of medical personnel, vehicles, and units
(iii) The choice and meaning of the distinctive emblem
(iv) Identifying, reacting to, and combating abuses of the distinctive emblem
(v) Respect for persons and property protected by other emblems
D The attitude of combatants towards enemy combatants
(i) Restriction on the use of certain weapons or projectiles
(ii) Is there a ‘right to kill’?
(iii) Attitude to child soldiers
(iv) The excuse of ‘superior orders’
3 Principles and Rules of IHL that Apply to Commanders
A Responsibility of the commander for violations committed by subordinates
B Responsibility for planning and carrying out an attack
(i) The principle of precaution
(ii) The principle of proportionality
C Responsibility for the methods of warfare and choice of weapons
D Prohibition of reprisals
E Prohibition of taking hostages and of collective punishments
F Responsibilities for acts committed against subordinates and other persons under the commander’s responsibility
4 Responsibility of the High Command
A Humanitarian assistance
B Prevention of forcible displacement
C Equipping armies with authorized weapons
D No recruitment of child soldiers
E Training soldiers in IHL
F Responsibility to stop all violations of IHL and to punish serious violations
5 The Problem of Non-international Armed Conflicts
6 Concluding Remarks
Ch.6 Air Warfare
1 Introduction
2 Codification of the Law of Air Warfare
3 The Law of Air Warfare
A Where may air operations be conducted?
B Who and what can be attacked?
C How must air operations be conducted?
D What weapons may be used?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
4 Concluding Thought
Ch.7 Maritime Warfare
1 Introduction
2 Entitlement to Exercise Belligerent Rights at Sea
3 The Legal Framework Applicable to the Conduct of Hostilities at Sea
A Basic principles applicable to naval warfare
B Geographical area
C Military objectives
(i) Enemy warships, auxiliaries, and military aircraft
(ii) Enemy merchant vessels and civil aircraft
(iii) Land targets
D Enemy vessels and aircraft enjoying (special) protection
(i) Hospital ships
(ii) Coastal rescue craft and other medical transports
(iii) Cartel vessels and aircraft as well as other vehicles granted safe conduct
(iv) Ships engaged in local trade and coastal fishery
(v) Other protected vessels
E Means and methods of naval warfare
(i) Naval mines and torpedoes
(ii) Missiles
(iii) Submarines
(iv) Naval blockade
(a) Establishment and maintenance of a blockade
(b) Effectiveness
(c) Further conditions of admissibility
(d) Special entry and exit regulations
(e) Breach of blockade
(f) Zones
(g) Control of the immediate vicinity of operations and warning zones
(h) Exclusion zones
4 Capture and Destruction of Enemy Merchant Vessels and Civil Aircraft under Prize Law
A Enemy merchant vessels and their cargoes
B Crews and passengers of captured enemy merchant vessels and civil aircraft
5 Maritime Neutrality
A Preliminary remarks
B Fundamental features of maritime neutrality
(i) Neutral status
(ii) Neutrality and the Charter of the United Nations
C Neutral sea areas
(i) Belligerent warships in neutral ports and roadsteads
(ii) Neutral territorial seas and the right of innocent passage
D Neutral trade
(i) Contraband
(ii) Navicerts and aircerts
(iii) Neutral merchant vessels and civil aircraft
6 Concluding remarks
Ch.8 The Law of Occupation
1 Introduction
2 The General Legal Framework Governing Occupation
3 The Beginning and End of Occupation
A The necessary presence of foreign forces
B The exercise of authority over the occupied territory
C The non-consensual nature of belligerent occupation
4 Delimiting the Rights and Duties of the Occupying Power: The Question of ‘Transformative Occupation’
A The scope of authority of the Occupying Power
B The case of ‘transformative occupation’
5 The Relationship Between the Law of Occupation and Human Rights Law in Light of the Issue of the Use of Force in Occupied Territory
Ch.9 The Law Applicable to Peace Operations
1 Introduction
2 Past and Current Legal Challenges
3 Legal Basis and Political Control
A Consent of the parties
B Impartiality
C Non-use of force and necessary exceptions
D Security Council Control
4 The Status of Peacekeepers
5 Selected Problems of Applicable Law and Policy for the Conduct of Peace Operations
A Security and safety
B Command and control
C Freedom of movement and communication, logistic support
D Operational law issues
1 Compliance with human rights obligations
2 Protection of civilians
3 Force protection
4 Operational detention
6 Accountability and Judicial Control
A Responsibility of states and international organizations
B Individual responsibility
C Circumstances precluding wrongfulness of conduct
D Monitoring and independent fact-finding
E Judicial control
7 Conclusions
Ch.10 The Law of Neutrality
1 Introduction
2 Definition and Content
3 Origins and History of the Law of Neutrality
4 Sources of Law
5 The Rights and Obligations of Neutrals and Belligerents
A Conditions for and duration of the applicability of the law of neutrality
B Content of the rights and obligations under the law of neutrality
(i) The protection of the neutral sovereign territory
(ii) The prohibition assisting the belligerents
(iii) Economic and commercial rights and obligations of neutral states
(iv) Obligation of equal treatment
C Neutral persons, ships, and aircraft
6 Temporary and Permanent Neutrality
7 Neutrality, Collective Security, Collective Defence
A Neutrality and the United Nations
B Neutrality in the context of the European Union
8 Neutrals as Opposed to Non-Belligerent, Non-Aligned or ‘Bloc Free’ States
9 Conclusion
Part IV Key Concepts for Humanitarian Law
Ch.11 The Developing Law of Weapons
1 Introduction
2 Defining ‘Weapons’
3 Weapons Law in Context
4 Conventional Sources of Law
5 Basic Principles of Weapons Law
A The principle of distinction
B The principle of humanity
C The nature of weapons and means of warfare
D The need for precautions in attack
E Summarizing the principles affecting weapons law
6 Customary Weapons Law
7 New and Emerging Technologies
8 Immediate Issues
Ch.12 The Principle of Distinction Between Civilians and Combatants
1 Basic Outline and Contemporary Challenges
2 International Armed Conflict
A The rule of distinction in international armed conflict
B Armed forces, combatants and civilians
(i) Treaty law pre-dating the Additional Protocol I of 1977
(a) Hague Regulations of 1907
(b) Geneva Conventions of 1949
(ii) Armed forces
(iii) Combatants
(iv) Civilians
3 Non-International Armed Conflict
A The rule of distinction in non-international armed conflict
b Armed forces, organized armed groups, civilians, and combatants
(i) Armed forces
Article 1(1) of AP II
(a) Status of organized armed groups in state practice
(b) Reconciliation of Common Article 3 and Article 1 of AP II
(c) Resulting concept
(ii) Organized armed groups
(a) Distinction from civilians directly participating in hostilities
(b) Individual membership
(iii) Civilians
1
2
3
(iv) Combatants
(a) Combatant privilege
(b) Functional combatancy
(c) International jurisprudence
(d) State practice
(e) Generic use of the term ‘combatant’ for all persons subject to lawful attack
(f) Expansive use of the term ‘combatant’ as a legal basis for detention
4 Direct Participation in Hostilities
A Basic rule and absence of definition
B The ICRC’s interpretation
(i) Threshold of harm
(ii) Direct causation
(iii) Belligerent nexus
C Temporal scope of loss of protection
5 Use of Force in Attack Against Legitimate Targets
6 Concluding Observations
Ch.13 Proportionality in the Law of Armed Conflict
1 Introduction
2 Proportionality as a Form of Legal Control of Armed Conflicts
3 Proportionality in Ius in Bello
A Proportionality in symmetrical legal relations
B Objective vs. subjective proportionality
C Proportionality and the treatment of civilians
4 Proportionality in Ius ad Bellum
A The structure of the proportionality assessment in asymmetrical legal relations
B Applicable standards: quantitative proportionality and qualitative proportionality
5 The Relationship between Proportionality in Ius in Bello and Proportionality in Ius ad Bellum
A The independence paradigm
B Expansive vs restrictive view
6 Conclusions: Towards a Common Standard of Proportionality in the Law of Armed Conflict?
Ch.14 Internal (Non-International) Armed Conflict
1 Introduction
2 The Variety and Complexity of IHL Rules on NIACs
3 The Criteria for Definition of Internal Armed Conflicts
A The nature of hostilities
(i) The gravity of hostilities
(ii) The duration of hostilities
B The nature of the actors
(i) A form of public power
(ii) An accountable and identifiable power
4 Concluding Remarks
Part V Key Rights in Times of Armed Conflict
Ch.15 The Right to Life
1 Origins and Scope of the Right to Life
2 The Human Rights Provisions on the Right to Life and International Humanitarian Law
3 Capital Punishment
4 Jus Ad Bellum and the Right to Life
5 Conclusion
Ch.16 Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
1 Introduction
2 Three Types of Ill-Treatment under Human Rights Law
A Distinguishing criteria
b Degrading treatment or punishment
C Cruel or inhuman treatment or punishment
D Torture
(i) Intention
(ii) Purpose
(iii) Powerlessness
E Obligations of states under Human Rights Law
3 Three Types of Ill-Treatment under International Humanitarian Law
A Outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment
B Cruel or inhuman treatment
C Torture
D Obligations under IHL
4 Conclusions
Ch.17 International Fair Trial Guarantees
1 Introduction
2 Fair Trial Guarantees under International Law: A Brief Overview
A Fair trial guarantees in IHL
(i) Fair trial provisions relating to international armed conflict
(ii) Fair trial provisions regulating non-international armed conflict
B The fair trial guarantees in IHRL
(i) Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(ii) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
C Derogation from fair trial guarantees
(i) Derogation under IHL
(ii) Derogation under IHRL
D Fair trial rights apply universally
3 What is a Regularly Constituted Court?
4 Fair Trial Guarantees: The Substantive Content
A Presumption of innocence
B Right to counsel
C Right to not testify against oneself
D Tried without undue delay: rights of notice and speedy trial
5 Military Commissions The United States Post-9/11
A Military commissions under unilateral executive control: 2001–06
B ‘The war on terror’ and the Military Commissions Act of 2006
C Prospects for reform of the military commissions: 2009 MCA
D Minor changes: the 2010 Military Commissions Manual
E Current proceedings
Conclusion
Ch.18 Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights in Armed Conflict
1 Introduction
2 Equal Treatment of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights and of Civil and Political Rights
3 The relevance of ESC-Rights to Peace and Armed Conflict
4 ESC-Rights in Armed Conflict Before the ESCR Committee
A Afghanistan
B Colombia
C Democratic Republic of the Congo
5 The Sliding Scale of Conflict Situations
A Peacetime
B Sporadic violence
C Insurrections
D Additional Protocol II non-international armed conflicts
E International armed conflicts
F Post-bellum situations
G Other scenarios
H Final remarks
6 IHL and ESC-Rights
7 Implementation and Enforcement
8 Conclusion
Ch.19 Protection of the Natural Environment
1 Introduction
2 General Rules of International Humanitarian Law Applicable to the Natural Environment
A Protecting enemy property from wanton destruction
B The Prohibition against pillage
C Protecting civilian objects during hostilities
D Protecting objects indispensable to the survival of the civilian population
E Weapons law
3 Specific Protection Provided by International Humanitarian Law for the Natural Environment
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
4 Strengthening the Legal Protection Provided by International Humanitarian Law for the Environment
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
5 Conclusion
Ch.20 Protection of Cultural Property
1 Introduction
2 International Humanitarian Law
A The conventional and customary context
B The fundamental rules
(i) Customary international law and the 1954 Hague Convention
(ii) The 1954 Hague Convention alone
(iii) The Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention alone
(iv) AP I and AP II alone
C The institutional framework
3 International Human Rights Law
4 International Cultural Heritage Law
5 International Criminal Law
A War crimes
B Crimes against humanity
6 Conclusion
Ch.21 Members of the Armed Forces and Human Rights Law
1 Introduction
2 What Are the ‘Armed Forces’?
3 Armed Forces and Human Rights Generally
A Human rights obligations imposed on members of armed forces
B International norms as part of national law
4 Peacekeeping and Human Rights
5 The Role of the United Nations
6 Why Do Soldiers Breach Human Rights?
7 Human Rights of Members of the Armed Forces
8 Conscientious Objection
9 Conclusion
Part VI Key Issues in Times of Armed Conflict
Ch.22 Use of Force
1 Introduction
2 The Prohibition of the Use of Force between States
3 The Definition of Aggression
4 Self-Defence
A Conditions
(i) Previous armed attack
(ii) Necessity
(iii) Proportionality
(iv) Two conventional requirements
B Two selected controversial topics
(i) Self-defence against non-state actors
(ii) Temporal aspects related to self-defence (anticipatory, preventive, pre-emptive)
5 What Beyond? Unanswered Questions on Some Alleged Exceptions to the Comprehensive Ban on the Use of Force
A General prefatory remarks
B Sampling of alleged exceptions
(i) Armed counter-measures or ‘self-defence lite’
(ii) Protection of nationals abroad
(iii) (Hot) pursuit
6 Conclusions
Ch.23 Terrorism
1 Introduction
2 When Does IHL Regulate Terrorism or Acts of Terror?
A The phenomenology of war: a preliminary look at jus ad bellum and jus in bello
B International armed conflict
C Non-international armed conflict
3 The Conduct of Hostilities Vis-à-Vis Terrorism and ‘Counter-Terrorist’ Operations
A The prohibition on terrorism and terrorist acts in armed conflict
B The law on counter-terrorism
4 Terrorism and Acts of Terror as War Crimes
5 Status, Detention and Treatment of Terrorist Suspects
6 Conclusion
Ch.24 Unlawful Combatants
1 Introduction
2 Terminology
3 ‘Unlawful Combatants’ in the Hands of the Enemy
A International armed conflicts
(i) The legal protection of ‘unlawful combatants’ under GC IV
(ii) Personal field of application of GC IV
(iii) Substantive protections for ‘unlawful combatants’ under GC IV
(iv) Derogations
(v) Minimum guarantees under customary international law
(vi) Penal prosecution of ‘unlawful combatants’
B Non-international armed conflicts
4 ‘Unlawful Combatants’ under the Rules of the Conduct of Hostilities
5 Some National Practice
A The Israeli incarceration of unlawful combatants law (as amended 30 July 2008)
B US practice in the fight against terrorism
6 Conclusion
Ch.25 Private Military and Security Companies
1 Introduction: The Challenge of Regulating Commercial Actors on the Battlefield
2 Presence, Protections, and Privileges
3 Are States the Answer?
4 Attributing PMSC Conduct to States
A When PMSC personnel serve as state organs
B State instruction, direction, or control of PMSCs
C PMSC personnel are empowered by law to exercise governmental authority
5 States’ Positive Obligations to Regulate and Remedy PMSC Conduct
6 Are States the Problem?
7 The Application of International Law to and by PMSCs and Their Personnel
A Indirect enforcement of international law against PMSCs and their personnel
B Application by PMSCs: the responsibility to respect
8 Conclusion: Unanswered Questions
Ch.26 International Human Rights Law in Time of Armed Conflict
1 Introduction
2 IHL and Collateral Legal Consequences Generally
3 IHL as Lex Specialis Displacing or Qualifying the Application of International Human Rights Law
4 Against the Notion of Competing Legal Frameworks: Evaluating the Lex Specialis Claims
A IHL and affirmative authorization
B ‘Armed conflict’ as determinant of regime boundaries
C The institutional and behavioural foundations of IHL: reciprocity and humanitarian protection as inducement for compliance
5 Concluding Remarks
Ch.27 Gender and Armed Conflict
1 Introduction
2 Gender-based Violence in Conflict
3 Legal Regimes for Addressing Gender and Armed Conflict
A International humanitarian law prior to 1990
B Legal developments after 1991
4 International Criminal Law
A Legislative provisions
B Application of law by international criminal tribunals
5 Women, Peace, and Security
6 Conclusions: Tensions and Debates
Ch.28 Armed Conflict and Forced Migration: A Systemic Approach to International Humanitarian Law, Refugee Law and Human Rights Law
1 Introduction
2 Refugees in War
A International humanitarian law and the limits of protection
(i) Refugees as protected persons under AP I
(ii) Refugees as non-nationals of a party to the conflict
(iii) Refugees as nationals of neutral, co-belligerent, or occupying state
B International refugee law and human rights law as a vital source of protection in armed conflicts
(i) International refugee law in times of armed conflict: between legal mimicry and emancipation from international humanitarian law
(ii) International human rights law as the residual source of refugee protection in armed conflicts
3 Refugees from War
A Access to protection: the principle of non-refoulement and the spectre of massive influx
B The grounds of protection: between a rock and a hard place?
4 Refugees in Post-War Contexts
A Voluntary repatriation: the human right to return filling the silence of international refugee law
B How voluntary is repatriation? International humanitarian law versus international human rights law
5 Conclusion
Part VII Accountability/Liability for Violations of the Law in Armed Conflict
Ch.29 War Crimes and Other International ‘Core’ Crimes
1 Introduction
2 The Criminalization of War Crimes versus the Criminalization of Crimes Against Humanity and Genocide
A The paths followed
B The reasons for the different paths to international criminalization
3 War Crimes and the Rules of IHL
A Classes of war crimes
B The seriousness of the violation and the distinction between war crimes of conduct and war crimes of result
C The nexus with the armed conflict
4 Crimes Against Humanity
A The prohibited conduct and the mental element
B The severance of the link with armed conflict and the contextual element
5 Genocide
A The genocidal acts
B The mental element
C Is the existence of a genocidal policy a legal ingredient of the crime of genocide?
6 Concluding Remarks
Ch.30 Focusing on Armed Non-State Actors
1 Introduction
2 International Humanitarian Law
A The law of treaties
B Contemporary customary international law
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
(xiii)
(xiv)
(xv)
(xvi)
(xvii)
(xviii)
(xix)
(xx)
(xxi)
(xxii)
(xxiii)
(xxiv)
C Special agreements, unilateral declarations, and codes of conduct
D When will an armed non-state actor be the bearer of these international obligations?
3 Human Rights Law
A Human rights treaties addressing the behaviour of armed non-state actors
B Human rights field missions, commissions of inquiry, and the UN human rights council
C The work of the Security Council and the Special Representative on Children in Armed Conflict
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
4 Non-Governmental Approaches and the Example of Geneva Call
1
2
3
1
2
3
5 International Criminal Law
6 The Alien Tort Statute
7 Options for Prevention, Prosecution, and Punishment
1
2
3
4
5
Ch.31 State Responsibility and the Individual Right to Compensation Before National Courts
1 Introduction
2 Compensation Claims Before the Courts of the Alleged WrongDoing State
A National reparation programmes
B Tort claims arising from military operations during non-international armed conflict
C Tort claims arising from international armed conflict
3 Compensation Claims Before Courts outside the Alleged Wrongdoing State
A The basic rule
B Inapplicability of the commercial activity exception
C Commission of grave violations as waiver?
D The territorial clause
E Precedence of jus cogens over jurisdictional immunity?
F Public policy considerations
4 Universal Jurisdiction for Reparation Claims?
5 Concluding Observations
Ch.32 Transitional Justice
1 Introduction
2 Peace and Justice: Once Thought Divisive, Now Considered Complementary
3 Truth-Seeking as a Form of Justice
A Truth commissions
B Commissions of inquiry
C Truth-seeking in the criminal justice process
4 The Emerging Culture of the End of Impunity for Perpetrators of the Most Serious International Crimes
A Individual criminal responsibility at the domestic level
(i) Obligations to prosecute and to punish
(ii) Amnesties
B Individual criminal responsibility at the international level
C Filling the ‘impunity gap’ through exercises of universal criminal jurisdiction
5 Justice for Victims in the Form of Reparation
6 Conclusion
Further Material
Index
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Table of Cases
Edited By: Andrew Clapham, Paola Gaeta, Tom Haeck (Assistant Editor), Alice Priddy (Assistant Editor)
From:
The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict
Edited By: Andrew Clapham, Paola Gaeta, Tom Haeck (Assistant Editor), Alice Priddy (Assistant Editor)
Content type:
Book content
Product:
Oxford Scholarly Authorities on International Law [OSAIL]
Series:
Oxford Handbooks in Law
Published in print:
13 March 2014
ISBN:
9780199559695
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