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Oxford Law Citator
Contents
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Preliminary Material
Preface
Contents
Table of Treaties and Other International Instruments
United Nations
Security Council Resolutions
UN General Assembly Resolutions
AU
NATO
EU
former WEU
OSCE
CSTO
Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
Albania
Afghanistan
Australia
Belgium
Belize
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Brunei
Bulgaria
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
China
Cook Islands
Croatia
Cyprus
Djibouti
East Timor
Finland
Gabon
Germany
Haiti
Hungary
Iraq
Israel
Italy
Japan
Korea
Kuwait
Kyrgyz Republic
Liberia
Malawi
Malta
Mazedonia, Former Yugoslav Republic
Montenegro
Netherlands
Pakistan
Papua New Guinea
Poland
Philippines
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Saudi Arabia
Seychelles
Slovakia
Slovenia
Somalia
South Sudan
Spain
Sudan
Syria
Tajikistan
Uganda
United Kingdom
United States
Yugoslavia
Table of Legislation
Afghanistan
African Union
Armenia
Australia
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Botswana
Canada
Estonia
European Union
Decisions
Directives
Regulations
France
Germany
Georgia
Ghana
Hungary
India
Japan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kyrgyzstan
Moldova
Netherlands
Portugal
Russia
Spain
Tajikistan
Ukraine
United Kingdom
United States
Uzbekistan
Table of Judgments
International Court of Justice
Permanent Court of International Justice
International Tribunal of The Law of The Sea
International Criminal Court
European Court of Justice (ECJ)
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
Special Court for Sierra Leone
National Courts
Australia
Canada
Croatia
Egypt
Germany
India
Italy
Netherlands
Republic of Ireland
Republic of Korea
Russia
United Kingdom
United States
Abbreviations
List of Contributors
Main Text
Part I General Framework
1 Introduction
I Objectives of the Law of Visiting Forces
II Relationship between International Law and National Law
III Out-of-Area Deployments
IV Evolving Customary Law?
V The Design of this Handbook
2 Historical Developments Influencing the Present Law of Visiting Forces
Preliminary Material
I Introduction
II The Law of Visiting Forces Prior to World War II
III Visiting Forces During World War II
IV Key Issues of the Negotiations, and of Parliamentary Debates, on NATO SOFA
V The Warsaw Pact Arrangements
VI Challenges Posed by Post-Cold War Types of Military Operations
VII Conclusion
3 Multinational Military Operations
I General
II Permanent Multinational Units
1 Present agreements on multinational units
2 The status of personnel
III Ad Hoc Multinational Units
IV Standby Arrangements
V Command and Control
1 NATO operations
2 UN peace operations
VI Conclusions
4 UN Peace Operations
I General
II Historical Development
III Various Functions of Peace Operations
IV Rules of International Law Relating to the Status of UN Peace Operations
1 The subjects of rights and duties under international law
2 Mission-specific arrangements
(a) The relationship between the United Nations and the Host State
(i) Mandate of the operation
(ii) Consent of the Host State
(iii) Status-of-forces agreement
(iv) Further agreements between the UN and the Host State
(b) The relationship between the United Nations and participating States
(c) Internal rules of the United Nations
3 Legal rules of a general nature: treaties
(a) Article 105 UN Charter
(b) Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations
(c) Convention on the Safety of the United Nations and Associated Personnel
4 General rules of international law and customary international law
(a) Human rights law
(b) International law relating to the conduct of hostilities
5 Internal UN rule-making of a general nature
6 Command and control in and status of peace operations
(a) The question of UN command and control
(b) The delineation of spheres of jurisdiction
(c) The use of weapons
(d) The resources of peace operations
(e) Liaison and dispute settlement
V Conclusions and Outlook
5 The Immunity of Visiting Forces and their Headquarters
I General
1 Sources of State immunity
2 Immunity of international organizations
3 Recent case law
4 Developments in legal doctrine
II Special Representatives; National and International Military Headquarters
III Military Personnel
IV Civilian Staff
V Locally Recruited Staff
VI Conclusions
Part II Commentaries to Typical Sofa Rules
6 General Overview
7 Respect for the Law of the Receiving State
I General
II Application of Receiving State Law
1 Private law
2 Administrative and public law
3 Application of Receiving State administrative procedures
III Mode of Application of Receiving State Law
IV Areas of Non-Application of Receiving State Law
V The Function of the Obligation to Respect the Law of the Receiving State
8 Members of Visiting Forces
I General
II UN Peace Operations
III NATO SOFA Definition of ‘Force’.
1 Detailed comments
(a) Active duty military personnel (‘who’)
(b) Three overall issues
2 Presence in the territory of Contracting Party (‘where’)
3 Connection with official duty (‘when’)
4 Nationality
IV Other Examples for Comparison
9 Civilian Components
I Civilian Components of UN Forces
II Civilian Components Under the NATO SOFA
10 Contractor Personnel
I Introduction
II Historical Overview
1 Private entrepreneurs
2 Rise of the contractors
III Practice
1 Terminology and definition
2 UN
3 NATO
4 EU
5 United States
IV Analysis and Conclusion
11 Dependents
I General
1 Spouse by marriage
2 Children
3 Other relatives
II Examples of Status Provided to Dependents Under the NATO SOFA and Supplementary Agreements
12 Entry and Departure of Visiting Forces
I General
II UN Peace Operations
III NATO Operations
IV Conclusion
13 Permits and Licences
14 Vehicles
I Vehicle Registration
1 Registration of service vehicles
2 Registration of privately owned vehicles
II Insurance
15 Uniform
I General
II UN Peace Operations
III NATO Military Operations
16 Communications
I General
II UN Model SOFA
III NATO SOFA
IV Cooperation with the Host State
V Supplemental Agreements
VI Conclusion
17 Premises
I General
1 Duties and rights of the Host State
2 Duties and rights of the Sending State
II Practical Application
III Conclusion
18 Travel and Transport
I General
1 Duties and rights of the Host/Receiving State
2 Duties and rights of the United Nations and Sending States
II Practical Application
III Conclusion
19 Arms
I General
II Scope of the Right to Carry Arms
1 Orders
2 Civilians
3 What are ‘arms?’
4 Ammunition
5 Transport and storage
6 Concealed weapons
7 Personal weapons
III Force Security
IV Use of Force
1 Right to personal self-defence
2 Unit self-defence
V Arms Import Control
VI Conclusion
20 Jurisdiction
I Introduction
1 Jurisdiction and immunity
2 Status-of-forces agreements
3 The position beyond status-of-forces agreements
II Criminal Jurisdiction
1 Personnel covered by status-of-forces agreements
(a) Members of a force
(b) Members of a civilian component
(c) Dependents
(d) Contractor employees
2 The jurisdictional decision
(a) The existence of jurisdiction
(b) Exclusive jurisdiction
(c) Concurrent jurisdiction
(d) Waiver of host nation primary right to exercise jurisdiction
(e) Recall of waiver
(f) Double jeopardy—ne bis in idem
(g) Waiver of Sending State primary jurisdiction
3 Arrest, custody, and related issues
(a) Legal hold over military personnel
(b) Legal hold as it pertains to members of the civilian component and dependents
(c) ‘Extradition’ and return of military personnel
(d) Surrender
(e) Rights of accused
(f) Interrogation
(g) The right to counsel and when it attaches
(h) Appeals
(i) Execution of sentences
(j) A sovereignty sore spot: The death penalty
III Civil Jurisdiction
IV Administrative Jurisdiction
1 Environmental provisions
2 Real estate
3 Health and safety
4 Traffic
5 Employment
V Conclusion
21 Military Law Enforcement
I Introduction
II Enforcement Jurisdiction
1 Territorial character
2 International legal assistance
III Scope of Enforcement Jurisdiction in SOFAs
1 Focus on immunity or jurisdiction
2 Assistance
3 Arrest and detention
4 Policing
IV Synthesis and Conclusions
22 Claims
I Introduction
II Historical Background
1 Prior to 1914
2 World War I
3 World War II
4 Post World War II
5 Summary
III The NATO SOFA Claims Regime
1 Article VIII
(a) Intergovernmental claims
(b) Official duty third-party claims
(c) Ex gratia claims
2 US claims operations in Germany
(a) Legal and executive authorities
(b) Claims processing
(c) Claims processing: Ex gratia (non-official duty) claims
3 The US as a Receiving State
4 Summary
IV Claims Operations in Eastern Europe
1 Claims operations in Hungary before 1990
(a) Soviet-era claims operations
(b) US claims operations under the Partnership for Peace (PfP) SOFA
2 Claims operations in the new NATO Member States
3 Summary
V Claims Operations in the EU
VI UN Claims Operations
1 Para. 51 UN Model SOFA
2 Local claims review boards in the Former Yugoslavia
3 UN claims reform efforts
4 The treatment of claims arising from UN operations in Haiti
5 Summary
VII NATO-Led Claims Operations in the Former Yugoslavia
1 IFOR/SFOR and EUFOR claims operations: The legal bases for claims activities in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia
(a) The Dayton SOFAs and the Balanzino Letter
(b) The technical arrangements
(c) The claims appendices
(d) The Bosnian Protocols and the Zagreb IFOR claims procedures
2 IFOR/SFOR and EUFOR/NATO claims operations: The claims offices and activities
3 IFOR/SFOR claims issues
(a) The efficacy and competence of the Claims Commissions and Arbitration Tribunals
(b) Damages to transportation infrastructure
(c) Applicable Receiving State law with regard to liability and the amount of awards
(d) US claims operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia
4 KFOR claims operations in Kosovo
5 Summary
VIII Claims Operations in Pakistan and Afghanistan
1 Pakistan
2 Afghanistan
(a) ISAF claims authorities
(b) ISAF claims operations
(c) US claims operations
3 Challenges in claims operations in Afghanistan
(a) ISAF combat damage guidance and funds
(b) Air strikes
(c) Assessing and reducing civilian casualties
(d) Transparency and consistency
(e) Environmental damages
(f) Local law and custom
4 Summary
IX Conclusions
23 Logistic Support
I Introduction
II Logistics in International Organizations
1 UN practice
2 NATO’s experience
3 Assessment
III Support Arrangements and Logistics Planning
IV Medical Assistance
V Conclusions and Recommendations
24 Deceased Members
I General
II Implementing Procedures
25 Tax and Customs Exemptions
I Taxes and Exemptions from Taxation
1 NATO SOFA
(a) Exemption from direct taxation
(b) Exemption from indirect taxes
2 Tax exemptions in supplementary and other agreements
3 The European Union VAT Directive
4 UN Model SOFA
II Customs Exemptions
1 NATO SOFA Customs Exemptions
2 Customs exemptions in supplementary and other agreements
3 UN Model SOFA
III Conclusion
26 Foreign Exchange Regulations
I General
II Foreign Exchange Regulations
1 Terminology and historical background
2 Developments after World War II, within the IMF Agreement and the SOFA Framework
III Analysis of the Relevant SOFA Provisions and their Application
1 The UN Model SOFA
2 The NATO SOFA
IV Conclusion
27 Financing Operations
I General
II United Nations
1 Background and challenges faced
2 Methods for financing peace operations and current practices
III African Union (AU)
1 Decision-making and funding-approval
2 The role of other international organizations
3 Recent efforts for strengthening internal funding mechanisms
IV European Union
1 Overview
2 Funding for civilian operations
3 Funding for military operations
4 Ongoing concerns regarding funding
V NATO
VI Conclusion
28 The ‘Joint Commission’ Liaison Mechanism
I Introduction
II Purpose
III Structure
IV Operation and Authority
V Administration
VI Conclusions
29 Supplemental Arrangements
I General
II Areas for Supplemental Arrangements
III Conclusion
30 Settlement of Disputes
I General
II Practical Application and Scope
III Influence on Jurisdiction
31 Territorial Applicability
I General
II Applicability of NATO SOFA in Specific Areas
1 The territory of any of the Parties
(a) Canada
(b) France
(c) Germany
(d) The Netherlands
(e) Portugal
(f) Spain
(g) Turkey
(h) United States of America
2 Algerian departments of France
3 Islands in the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer
(a) Greenland and Faeroe Islands
(b) British Overseas Territories
4 Article 6(ii) North Atlantic Treaty
5 Territories outside Europe and North America
III Applicability of NATO SOFA Out of Area?
1 Naval operations
2 Aerial operations
3 Land operations
IV Conclusion
32 Revision
I General
II Regular Review
III Formal Revision
33 Termination
34 Applicability during Crisis or War
I General
II UN Experience
II NATO Experience
III Conclusion
Part III Headquarters Agreements
35 Legal Issues Related to International Military Headquarters
I General
II Definition
III Governing Documents
IV Selection of Common Legal Issues
1 Legal personality
2 Applicable law and jurisdiction
3 Status of different actors present at an IMHQ
4 Nature of privileges and immunities of the IMHQ and its personnel
5 Claims
6 Settlements of disputes
V Conclusions
36 United Nations Headquarters in the Field
I General
II Premises
III Supplies and Services
IV Personnel
37 NATO International Military Headquarters
I Background and Role of the Paris Protocol
II Preliminary Remarks
1 The Paris Protocol and the law of international organizations
2 The Paris Protocol and the Ottawa Agreement
3 The Paris Protocol and Receiving State Law
(a) General
(b) Receiving State Law, EU law, and the Paris Protocol
III Comments to Specific Provisions of the Paris Protocol
1 NATO International Military Headquarters—When does the Paris Protocol apply? Preamble, Art. 1, and Art. 14
2 The Paris Protocol and the NATO SOFA (Paris Protocol Arts. 2, 3 (para. 2), and 4, 15, and 16, (para. 2))
(a) An Allied Headquarters and the notion of ‘Sending State’ (Art. 3, para. 2)
(b) Art. 4 and applying the NATO SOFA to Allied Headquarters
(c) Settlement of disputes and differences—Paris Protocol, Art. 15
(d) Revision, accession, entry into force, and scope of application—Paris Protocol, Art. 16, para. 1
(i) NATO SOFA Art. XV—Application in the event of hostilities
(ii) NATO SOFA Art. XVII—Revision
(iii) NATO SOFA Art. XVIII—Ratification, deposit, entry into force of, and accession
(iv) NATO SOFA Art. XIX—Denunciation
(v) NATO SOFA Art. XX—Territorial application
3 Supplementary Agreements (Paris Protocol, Art. 16, para. 1)
4 Legal Status (Paris Protocol, Arts. 10 and 13, para. 1)
(a) National legal personality and legal capacity of Supreme Headquarters
(b) International legal personality and legal capacity of Supreme Headquarters
5 Inviolability of an Allied Headquarters and immunity from jurisdiction (Paris Protocol, Arts. 11 and 13; NATO SOFA, Art. XI, para. 3)
(a) Inviolability of premises
(b) NATO International Civilians and NATO Administrative Tribunal
(c) Headquarters’ property and funds and immunity from execution measures
(d) Inviolability of Allied Headquarters archives and documents
6 An Allied Headquarters and its assets (Paris Protocol, Arts. 9 and 12)
(a) Disposal of assets (Paris Protocol, Art. 9)
(b) Bank accounts and the right to hold currency (Paris Protocol, Art. 12)
7 Fiscal privileges and immunities of an Allied Headquarters (Paris Protocol, Art. 8, para. 1 and NATO SOFA, Arts. XI–XIII)
(a) Defining ‘tax and duties’
(b) Understanding ‘as far as practicable’
(c) Are further or separate agreements required?
(d) Applying NATO SOFA to an Allied Headquarters—Paris Protocol, Art. 8, para. 2
(e) Tax and duty exemptions—the Paris Protocol and EU regulations
(i) Import and export
(ii) Value Added Tax on purchases made in the EU
(iii) Excise duties on purchases made in the EU
(iv) Resale of goods and EU regulations
8 An Allied Headquarters, reporting of its staff, and issuance of ID cards by the headquarters and the Receiving State (the Paris Protocol, Art. 5)
9 Allied Headquarters’ international staff members and their status under the Paris Protocol Arts. 3, 7, and 8 (paras. 2 and 3)
(a) Definitions (Paris Protocol, Art. 3)
(i) Force
(ii) ‘Attached to’
(iii) Civilian component
(iv) Local civilian employees
(v) Contractors and their employees
(b) Status granted to members of an Allied Headquarters staff in the Paris Protocol
(i) Specific status granted to staff members in the Paris Protocol
(ii) Status of flag and general officers
(iii) Exemption from passport and immigration control and the principle of non-residence
(iv) Recognition of driver’s licences issued by the Sending State
(c) Fiscal privileges (Art. XI NATO SOFA, and Arts. 7 and 8 of the Protocol)
(i) Exemption from taxation on income (the Protocol Art. 7)
(ii) Access to canteens, cafeterias, and messes operated by the Allied Headquarters
(iii) Duty-free import of personal effects and furniture
(iv) Duty-free import of private motor vehicles for personal use
IV Conclusions
38 Other Military Headquarters
I African Union
1 Historical antecedents: From non-interference to non-indifference
2 The legal basis for a Pan-African collective military cooperation
3 The legal status of AU military headquarters
4 The legal status of AU forces
5 Concluding remarks
II Military Headquarters for EU Operations
1 The EU military role
2 Planning and conducting EU military operations
3 Establishing an EU operational headquarters?
(a) The new momentum
(b) Design and operation
III From the Commonwealth of Independent States to the Collective Security Treaty Organization
1 The Commonwealth of Independent States
2 The Collective Security Treaty Organization
Part IV The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
39 The International Committee of the Red Cross: Legal Status, Privileges, and Immunities
I Introduction
II The Birth of the ICRC and of International Humanitarian Law
III The Mandate and Role of the ICRC
1 The Geneva Conventions of 1949
2 The Additional Protocols of 1977
3 The Statutes of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
4 The ICRC as ‘guardian’ or ‘custodian’ of international humanitarian law
IV The Legal Status of the ICRC
V The Status Agreements of the ICRC
1 Purpose of status agreements
2 Legal nature of status agreements
3 The negotiation of status agreements
VI The Contents of the Status Agreements
1 The preamble
2 The legal status of the ICRC
3 The legal personality of the ICRC
4 The privileges and immunities of the ICRC
5 The privileges and immunities of the ICRC staff and representatives
6 The application and interpretation of the status agreement
VII Conclusion
40 Rights and Obligations of Foreign National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
I Introductory Remarks
II The Origins of National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
III The Legal Status of National Societies
1 Establishment of National Societies
2 Conditions of recognition
IV The Mandate, Role, and Tasks of National Societies
V Legal Framework of National Societies’ International Operations
1 Multilateral operations
2 Bilateral operations
3 Unilateral operations
4 Law to be observed by national societies’ international operations
VI Relations with Military Bodies
VII Concluding Remarks
Part V Case Studies
41 The Law of Stationing Forces in Germany: Six Decades of Multilateral Cooperation
I Occupation After World War II
II Two German States
1 The Federal Republic of Germany
(a) Jus ad praesentiam
(b) Jus in praesentia
(c) International Military Headquarters in the Federal Republic of Germany
(d) NATO agencies in Germany
2 The German Democratic Republic
III The German Unification in 1990
1 The Treaty on German Unity
2 The withdrawal of the Russian forces
3 The revision of the Supplementary Agreement to NATO SOFA
4 German participation in multinational units
5 The 1995 Visiting Forces Act
6 Partnership for Peace and further developments
IV Conclusion
42 The Japan Experience with Visiting Forces—An Evolving Perspective
I Introduction
II The Agreements Regarding Status of Foreign Forces in Japan
1 The United States Forces in Japan
2 The United Nations Command (UNC)
3 Review of key provisions
(a) Symmetry
(b) Definitions
(c) Facilities and areas
(d) Operations
(e) Responsibility sharing
(f) Local procurement
(g) Taxes
(h) Local labour
(i) Foreign criminal jurisdiction
III The Legal Structure as Related to the Japan Self-Defense Forces and their Development as a Sending State Force
1 Debates on Japan’s overseas activity during the Cold War
2 The Gulf War and Self-Defence Forces deployment overseas
3 Self-Defence Force’s legal status in overseas operations
IV Future Challenges for Japan as a Sending State
V Conclusions
43 Visiting Forces in Korea
I Introduction
II The Three Commands
1 The United Nations Command (UNC)
2 The Republic of Korea–United States Combined Forces Command (CFC)
3 The United States Forces Korea (USFK)
III The Agreements Governing Visiting Forces in the Republic of Korea
1 The United States-Republic of Korea SOFA
(a) Symmetry
(b) Definitions
(c) Facilities and areas
(d) Local procurement
(e) Taxes
(f) Local labour
(g) Criminal jurisdiction
(h) Claims
2 The ‘Meyer Agreement’ for UN forces in the Republic of Korea
IV Multinational Units in the Republic of Korea: The KATUSA Program
V Conclusions
44 Afghanistan
I Introduction
II The Bonn Agreement
1 US Invasion
2 Establishing the government of Afghanistan
III The International Security Assistance Force
1 ISAF mandate
2 The military technical agreement
(a) Criminal jurisdiction
(b) Movement
(c) Tolls, fees, duties, and taxes
(d) Force support activities
IV Operation Enduring Freedom
1 Movement, licences, and wear of uniform
2 Tolls, fees, duties, and taxes
3 Criminal jurisdiction and force support activities
V ISAF Mission Change and Blurring of Roles with OEF
VI SOFA Challenges under ISAF and OEF
1 Logistics: Contractors and private security contractors
(a) Contractors
(b) Private security contractors
2 Logistics: Customs and taxes
(a) Customs
(b) Taxes
3 Detention operations
(a) Background: 2001–2006
(b) ISAF and OEF detention operations
(c) International Criminal Court’s preliminary examination
(d) Domestic Sending State litigation involving detention
(i) Canada
(ii) UK
(iii) US
4 Kinetic operations: Air strikes and night operations
(a) Air strikes
(b) Night operations
5 Summary
VII Negotiations for New SOFAs
VIII The New Legal Framework: The Afghanistan-NATO SOFA and Afghanistan-US Bilateral Security Agreement (BSA)
1 Adoption of the new legal framework
2 Change in role of NATO and US missions: Resolute Support and Operation Freedom’s Sentinel
3 The Afghanistan-NATO SOFA and Afghanistan-US BSA
(a) Criminal jurisdiction
(b) Movement
(c) Tolls, fees, duties, and taxes
(d) Force support activities
IX Conclusion
1 Results of the new agreements
2 The way ahead
45 Russian Forces in the Former USSR and Beyond
I National Security Powers under the Russian Constitution of 1993
II Implementing Legislation
1 Participation in international peace operations under the UN or regional mandates
2 Engagement of terrorists outside the Russian territory
3 Repulsion of an armed attack against Russian forces
4 Repulsion or prevention of an armed attack against other States
5 Protection of Russian citizens abroad
6 Repression of piracy
III Official Practice
1 Non-treaty-based deployments
2 Treaty-based deployments
IV Conclusion
46 Alternative Approaches to Certain Deployments: Agreements Conferring Status Similar to the Status of Administrative and Technical Staff of Embassies (A&T Agreements)
I The Nature of A&T Agreements
II The Purpose of A&T Agreements
III A Global SOFA Template (GST)
IV Conclusion
Part VI Conclusions for the Planning of Military Deployments
47 Visiting Forces in an Operational Context
I General
II The Legal Background of the Mission
1 Deployment in support of UN peace operations
2 Deployment of NATO forces within NATO Members’ territories
3 Deployment of NATO forces outside NATO Members’ territories
4 Deployment within the area of another regional organization
5 Deployment in a bilateral State context
III Particular Sensitive Issues
1 Command and control
2 Respect for Receiving State law
3 Freedom of movement
4 Criminal jurisdiction over personnel of the Sending State
5 Policing
6 Claims regulation
7 Contractor issues
8 Difficulties of interpretation and application
9 Matters of detail
IV A Practical Tool: Check List for Lawyers Involved in Pre-Deployment Negotiations
Further Material
Index
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Contents
Dieter Fleck
From:
The Handbook of the Law of Visiting Forces (2nd Edition)
Edited By: Dieter Fleck
Content type:
Book content
Product:
Oxford Scholarly Authorities on International Law [OSAIL]
Published in print:
12 April 2018
ISBN:
9780198808404
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