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From: Freedom of Religion or Belief: An International Law Commentary
Heiner Bielefeldt, Nazila Ghanea, Michael Wiener
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Freedom of Religion or Belief - An International Law Commentary by Bielefeldt, Heiner; Ghanea, Nazila; Wiener, Michael (21st January 2016)
- Close sectionPreliminary Material
- Foreword
- Preface
- Contents
- Close sectionTable of Cases
- African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights
- Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
- Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
- European Commission of Human Rights
- European Court of Human Rights
- European Court of Justice
- Human Rights Committee
- Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
- Inter-American Court of Human Rights
- International Court of Justice
- Working Group on Arbitrary Detention
- Close sectionNational Cases
- Close sectionTable of Legislation
- International Treaties and Instruments
- Close sectionNational Legislation
- Argentina
- Australia
- Belgium
- Belize
- Benin
- Burundi
- Canada
- Chad
- China
- Côte d’Ivoire
- Croatia
- Cyprus
- Denmark
- Finland
- Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
- France
- Gabon
- Germany
- Greece
- Guinea
- Holy See
- Hungary
- India
- Indonesia
- Iran
- Israel
- Kenya
- Lao People’s Democratic Republic
- Lithuania
- Madagascar
- Mali
- Monaco
- Netherlands
- New Zealand
- Niger
- Nigeria
- Pakistan
- Qatar
- Republic of Ireland
- Republic of Moldova
- Republic of the Maldives
- Romania
- Rwanda
- Saudi Arabia
- Serbia
- South Africa
- Spain
- Sri Lanka
- Sudan
- Sweden
- Switzerland
- Syrian Arab Republic
- Togo
- Tunisia
- Turkmenistan
- United Arab Emirates
- United Kingdom
- United Mexican States
- United States
- Viet Nam
- Zimbabwe
- List of Abbreviations
- About the Co-authors
- Close sectionMain Text
- Close sectionThe Underlying Principles of Freedom of Religion or Belief—Towards a Holistic Conceptualization
- Preliminary Material
- Close sectionI Complementary Fears
- Close sectionII Alternative Visions
- Close sectionIII The Human Rights Approach: Empowering Human Beings
- Close sectionIV Respect for Human Dignity
- Close sectionV Towards a Universalistic Conceptualization
- Close sectionVI Freedom
- Close sectionVII Equality
- Close sectionVIII Positive Interrelatedness with Other Human Rights
- Close sectionIX The Role of the State
- X Conclusion
- Close sectionOverview of International Human Rights Mechanisms
- Close sectionPart 1 Freedom of Religion or Belief
- Preliminary Material
- Close section1.1 Freedom to Adopt, Change, or Renounce a Religion or Belief
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- III Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close section1.2 Freedom from Coercion
- Close section1.3 The Right to Manifest One’s Religion or Belief
- Close section1.3.1 Freedom to Worship
- Close section1.3.2 Places of Worship
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- III Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close section1.3.3 Religious Symbols
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- III Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- 1 Restrictions Imposed on Employees
- 2 Restrictions Imposed on Police Officers
- 3 Restrictions Imposed on University Students
- 4 Restrictions Imposed on Pupils at Public Schools
- 5 Restrictions Imposed on Teachers and University Lecturers
- 6 Restrictions Relating to Identity Photographs
- 7 Imposition of Religious Dress Codes
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close section1.3.4 Observance of Holidays and Days of Rest
- Close section1.3.5 Appointing Clergy
- Close section1.3.6 Teaching and Disseminating Materials (Including Missionary Activity)
- Close section1.3.7 The Liberty of Parents to Ensure the Religious and Moral Education of Their Children
- Close section1.3.8 Registration
- Close section1.3.9 Communicate with Individuals and Communities on Religious Matters at the National and International Level
- Close section1.3.10 Establish and Maintain Charitable or Humanitarian Institutions/Solicit and Receive Funding
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- III Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close section1.3.11 Conscientious Objection
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- III Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- Close section1 Right to Conscientious Objection to Military Service
- Close section(a) Position of the Human Rights Committee
- (i) Prior to 1993: ICCPR does not provide for a right to conscientious objection
- (ii) From 1993 until 2010: Right to conscientious objection can be derived from article 18 of the ICCPR (i.e. forum externum or external dimension)
- (iii) Since 2011: Right to conscientious objection inheres in the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion (i.e. forum internum dimension)
- Close section(b) Position of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief
- (i) Prior to 1988: No international right to conscientious objection to military service
- (ii) From 1988 until 1996: Conscientious objection is a legitimate exercise of the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion (i.e. forum externum dimension)
- (iii) From 1997 until 2002: Conscientious objection is part of freedom of thought, conscience, religion, and belief (i.e. forum internum dimension)
- (iv) Since 2003: Conscientious objection is a manifestation of one’s religion or belief (i.e. forum externum dimension)
- Close section(c) Position of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention
- Close section(a) Position of the Human Rights Committee
- Close section2 Who Can Claim Conscientious Objection
- Close section3 Procedural Issues
- 4 Repeated Trials and Punishment of Conscientious Objectors
- Close section5 Alternative Service
- 6 Refugee Status Claims of Conscientious Objectors
- 7 Conscientious Objection in Disputed Territories Controlled by de facto Authorities
- Close section1 Right to Conscientious Objection to Military Service
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close section1 Normative Basis for the Right to Conscientious Objection to Military Service
- 2 Selective Conscientious Objection
- 3 Total Conscientious Objection
- Close section4 Conscientious Objection to Other Issues—General Observations
- Close section5 Practical Examples of Conscientious Objection in Other Areas
- (a) Conscientious objection against taxation
- (b) Conscientious objection against carrying out abortions
- (c) Conscientious objection against a duty to join a hunting association
- (d) Conscientious objection against singing the national anthem or saluting the flag
- (e) Conscientious objection in the employment sphere
- Close sectionPart 2 Discrimination
- Preliminary Material
- Close section2.1 Discrimination on the Basis of Religion or Belief/Interreligious Discrimination/Tolerance
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- III Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- Close section1 Discrimination Committed by States, de facto Authorities, and Societal Non-State Actors
- 2 Intersectional Discrimination
- 3 Direct and Indirect Discrimination
- 4 Differential Treatment for Equality
- Close section5 The Role of Reasonable Accommodation
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close section2.2 State Religion
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- III Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- 1 Human Rights Committee General Comments
- Close section2 Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief
- 3 State Religion is not Prohibited, but Raises Critical Questions
- Close section4 Examples of Human Rights Obligations That the State Must Honour
- 5 Can All Human Rights Obligations be Honoured Where There is a State Religion?
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close sectionPart 3 Vulnerable Groups
- Preliminary Material
- Close section3.1 Women
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- III Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- Close section1 Overarching Norms and Principles
- Close section2 Practical Tasks
- (a) Addressing gender-based stereotypes in conjunction with stereotypes based on religion
- (b) How to define limits to freedom of religion or belief
- (c) Gender and sexuality in school education programmes
- (d) Autonomy of religious institutions and their limits
- (e) Closing protection gaps in religious family laws
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close section3.2 Persons Deprived of Their Liberty
- Close section3.3 Refugees, Asylum Seekers, and Internally Displaced Persons
- Close section3.4 Children
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- III Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close section3.5 Minorities
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- III Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- Close section1 Patterns of Violations
- (a) Denial of an appropriate legal status
- (b) Unnecessary bureaucratic restrictions
- (c) Structural discrimination and exclusion
- (d) Discriminatory implications of personal status laws
- (e) Alienation and indoctrination of children
- (f) Publicly stoked prejudices
- (g) Acts of vandalism and desecration
- (h) Obstacles against religious rituals or ceremonies
- (i) Threats and acts of violence against members of religious minorities
- (j) Disrespect of internal autonomy
- (k) Confiscation of property and unfair restitution policies
- (l) Criminal sanctions
- (m) Denial of asylum
- 2 The Added Value of Minority Rights
- 3 Broad, Inclusive Application
- 4 Empowering Human Beings to Freely Develop Their Religious Identities
- 5 Promotional Activities on the Basis of Equality and Non-Discrimination
- Close section1 Patterns of Violations
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close section3.6 Migrant Workers
- Close sectionPart 4 Intersection of Freedom of Religion or Belief with Other Human Rights
- Preliminary Material
- Close section4.1 Freedom of Expression Including Questions Related to Religious Conflicts, Religious Intolerance, and Extremism
- Close section4.2 Right to Life, Right to Liberty
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- Close sectionIII Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- Close section1 Violations of the Right to Life Simply by Virtue of Belonging to a Particular Religion or Belief
- 2 State-Induced Violations of the Right to Life on the Basis of Religious Law
- 3 Non-State Violators of the Right to Life
- 4 Conscientious Objection in Relation to Rejecting to Take the Life of Others in Military Service
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close section4.3 Prohibition on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- III Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close sectionPart 5 Cross-Cutting Issues
- Preliminary Material
- Close section5.1 Derogation
- Close section5.2 Limitations
- Preliminary Material
- I International Standards
- II Introduction
- Close sectionIII Historical Background
- Close sectionIV Mandate Practice of UN Special Procedures and Treaty Bodies
- Close sectionV Issues of Interpretation
- Close section5.3 Legislative Issues
- Close section5.4 Defenders of Freedom of Religion or Belief and Non-Governmental Organizations
- Close sectionThe Underlying Principles of Freedom of Religion or Belief—Towards a Holistic Conceptualization
- Close sectionFurther Material
